Indoor Air Quality Wiki - User contributions [en-gb]

N. EU's Zero Pollution Action Plan and its Focus on Air Quality

2023-09-20T11:21:24Z

USEV:

The '''Zero Pollution Action Plan''' is a cornerstone initiative of the European Green Deal, aimed at comprehensively addressing pollution across different domains. Pollution, a significant threat to both health and the environment, has spurred the European Union to lead global efforts to address it. This plan encompasses a range of key objectives, primarily directed towards water, air, and soil pollution, with the overarching vision of achieving a pollution-free environment by 2050.

While the action plan is broad in scope, it explicitly underscores the significance of tackling air pollution as a fundamental concern130. Among its pivotal objectives, the plan seeks to reduce health impacts caused by air pollution by more than 55%, resulting in a considerable decrease in premature deaths attributed to particulate matter by 2030131. Additionally, the plan aims to reduce the extent of European ecosystems facing the threat of air pollution-related biodiversity loss by 25%132.

The Zero Pollution Action Plan holds the potential to transform the European Union’s approach to pollution prevention, fostering a greener, digitally advanced, and economically vibrant Europe. It not only seeks to integrate pollution prevention across various policies but also endeavours to identify and address potential gaps in relevant legislation. Despite its clear focus on improving air quality as part of its holistic vision for pollution reduction, the plan does not currently encompass a specific, European Union wide legislative framework for IAQ. Notably, the importance of addressing indoor air pollution has been acknowledged in recent European Commission communications, indicating a growing awareness of the interconnectedness between indoor and outdoor air quality and the need for broader policy considerations.

'''Clean Air Policy within the Zero Pollution Action Plan'''

The '''Clean Air Policy''' component of the Zero Pollution Action Plan is a vital pillar in the European Union's determined efforts to enhance ambient air quality and address air pollution, thereby safeguarding both the environment and human health. With a holistic approach towards achieving the EU's overarching vision of zero pollution by 2050, the clean air policy is structured around three key pillars: establishing stringent ambient air quality standards, reducing air pollution emissions, and implementing emissions standards for critical pollution sources.

A cornerstone of this policy's aspirations is the European Union’s target to achieve a minimum 55% reduction in premature deaths attributed to particulate matter by 2030, underscoring the urgency of the issue. At its core, the Clean Air Policy not only seeks to directly improve public health and diminish instances of illness associated with air pollution but also endeavours to alleviate the strain air pollution places on ecosystems and biodiversity. By merging these objectives with a comprehensive approach to emissions reduction, the Clean Air Policy within the Zero Pollution Action Plan emerges as a crucial mechanism in the European Union’s broader drive towards a cleaner, healthier, and more sustainable environment.

'''European Commission Communication: Towards Zero Pollution for Air, Water and Soil'''

European Commission recognises the complex web of factors affecting IAQ and acknowledges that existing European Union policies have touched upon various determinants, encompassing aspects from ambient air to construction materials, consumer products, and occupational safety and health regulations. However, a comprehensive and integrated approach addressing IAQ remains absent within the European Union Legislative framework. Notably, the COVID-19 pandemic's impact has placed a renewed emphasis on the critical need for maintaining clean indoor air environments, especially as building insulation advancements heighten the significance of IAQ. School buildings, in particular, are emphasised as deserving special attention, due to the particular health and well-being vulnerability of children to poor IAQ.

A recent communication from the European Commission concerning '''Zero Pollution for Air Water and Soil''' underlined policy and knowledge gaps in terms of IAQ while also highlight actions the European Commission has undertaken. These include flagship actions as part of its Zero Pollution Action Plan. These initiatives aim to holistically address urban pollution and foster greener cities. Within this context, the Commission intends to synergise various strategies, such as the Horizon Europe Mission for Climate Neutral and Smart Cities, the Covenant of Mayors, and the New European Bauhaus initiative, to pinpoint key requirements for urban innovation and greening, encompassing indoor air pollution prevention. By 2024, the European Commission also intends to commend cities making significant strides in reducing air, water, and soil pollution, thereby fostering tailored pollution mitigation strategies in local contexts.

The European Commission has set forth a concrete plan to assess pathways and policy options to improve IAQ, coupled with the proposal of relevant legislative measures. With a focus on key determinants and pollution sources, this endeavour strives to augment public awareness, diminish risks, and culminate in a more comprehensive, coherent approach to tackling IAQ challenges.

=== ''' References ''' ===

130 The European Commission Joint Research Centre, “Zero Pollution Report 2022”, Publications Office of the European Union, 2022. Available online: https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu/scientific-activities-z/zero-pollution-outlook-2022_en

131 The European Commission, “Air”, 2023. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air_en

132 The European Commission Joint Research Centre, “Zero Pollution Report 2022”, Publications Office of the European Union, 2022. Available online: https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu/scientific-activities-z/zero-pollution-outlook-2022_en

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

L. EU Ambient Air Quality Directives

2023-09-20T11:19:34Z

USEV:

The European Union's Ambient Air Quality Directives address outdoor air quality within the troposphere, excluding indoor environments and workplaces subject to health and safety at work regulations. These directives, implemented since the 1980s, set air quality standards in the European Union for 12 pollutants, including sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5), ozone, benzene, lead, carbon monoxide, arsenic, cadmium, nickel, and benzo(a)pyrene (RL9). The core objectives of these directives aim to avoid, prevent, or reduce harmful effects on human health and the environment, with a focus on providing safe and healthy outdoor air.

The EU proposed revisions to the Ambient Air Quality Directives in 2022, aligning air quality standards with World Health Organisation recommendations, and aiming to achieve zero pollution for air by 2050. The revisions involve regular reviews of air quality standards, enhanced legal clarity, and support for local authorities in achieving cleaner air. The proposal is designed to provide greater clarity, access to justice, and better public information on air quality, alongside strengthening air quality monitoring and modelling efforts. While these directives have significantly improved outdoor air quality, they specifically pertain to outdoor air quality and not IAQ126, although the Zero Pollution Action Plan does allude to IAQ.

Despite extensive policies, the European Union lacks a comprehensive European level legislative framework specifically addressing IAQ127. Recognising the need for a more holistic approach to air pollution, there is a call for coherent and mutually reinforcing policies, ensuring health, safety, chemical, and building regulations are effectively aligned128. While these directives contribute significantly to outdoor air quality improvement, they remain separate from any EU-wide initiatives addressing IAQ challenges.

'''Timeline of Ambient Air Quality Directives'''

• Directive 2004/107/EC relating to arsenic, cadmium, mercury, nickel and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air.

• Directive 2008/50/EC on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe.

• 2011/850/EU: Commission Implementing Decision of 12 December 2011 laying down rules for Directives 2004/107/EC and 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council as regards the reciprocal exchange of information and reporting on ambient air quality.

• Commission Directive (EU) 2015/1480 amending several annexes to Directives 2004/107/EC and 2008/50/EC.

'''EU Ambient Air Quality Directive Revision (2022)'''

On 26 October 2022, as part of the European Green Deal, the Commission proposed a revision of the Ambient Air Quality Directives, which focuses exclusively on outdoor air quality standards. This revision aligns air quality standards more closely with the recommendations of the World Health Organization, including a reduction by over half in the annual limit value for fine particulate matter (PM2.5) (RL9). It's important to note that, similar to the existing Ambient Air Quality Directives, this revision specifically addresses outdoor air quality and does not encompass indoor air quality regulations. The proposal sets the EU on a path to achieve zero air pollution by 2050 and includes provisions for regular air quality standard reviews based on the latest scientific evidence. The revision also enhances the legal framework for access to justice, damage redress, penalties, and public information related to air quality. It aims to better support local authorities by strengthening air quality monitoring, modelling, and plans, while streamlining and simplifying the directives129. It's worth mentioning that while this revision doesn't cover indoor air quality directly, the broader Zero Pollution Action Plan alludes to the significance of indoor air quality considerations.

=== ''' References ''' ===

126 The European Commission, “Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions Empty: Pathway to a Healthy Planet for All: EU Action Plan: Towards Zero Pollution for Air, Water and Soil,” the European Commission, 12 May 2021. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52021DC0400&qid=1623311742827

127 European Parliament resolution of 25 March 2021 on the implementation of the Ambient Air Quality Directives: Directive 2004/107/EC and Directive 2008/50/EC (2020/2091(INI)). Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air/air-quality/revision-ambient-air-quality-directives_en

128 European Parliament resolution of 25 March 2021 on the implementation of the Ambient Air Quality Directives: Directive 2004/107/EC and Directive 2008/50/EC (2020/2091(INI)). Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air/air-quality/revision-ambient-air-quality-directives_en

129 The European Commission, “Revision of the Air Quality Directive,” European Commission, 26 October 2022. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air/air-quality/revision-ambient-air-quality-directives_en

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

K. EU Legislative Framework on Indoor Air Quality

2023-09-20T11:16:16Z

USEV:

IAQ is recognised as a critical determinant of health by the World Health Organization, highlighting the potential health risks from indoor pollutants121. However, while there are comprehensive regulations for outdoor air quality, there is no specific European Union directive exclusively addressing IAQ (RL20). Pre-legislative initiatives, research, standards, and guidelines have been introduced, but a unified policy on IAQ is yet to be established in the European Union.

Initiatives like the European Collaborative Action have studied IAQ's impact on human activities, but a cohesive approach remains elusive. Despite the absence of an integrated IAQ policy, the Zero Pollution Action Plan, European Parliament resolutions, and European Commission communications emphasise the importance of considering IAQ alongside outdoor air quality. Furthermore, projects like the Evidence Drive Air Quality Improement (EDIAQI), funded under the Horizon Europe programme, are currently underway with the aim to support the formation of European level action and legislative development and implementation vis-à-vis IAQ.

''' Member State Level Legislation'''

In various European Union member states, diverse approaches have been taken to address IAQ through a series of actions and national level legislative measures. This patchwork of efforts aims to improve IAQ standards and protection across different countries. Measures by member states include the establishment of national IAQ plans, drafting legislative acts specifically tailored for indoor environments, and the implementation of mandatory indoor air monitoring activities. Additionally, training and informational programs target technical offices, managers, and staff to enhance their awareness and understanding of IAQ matters. In some countries member states specific legislations and reference ISO standards have been introduced for each pollutant122.

However, a prevailing challenge in this process has been the absence of dedicated IAQ sampling and analysis standards. The confusion stemming from the utilisation of standards designed for industrial environments, such as those by National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and Occupational Safety and Health Administration, which have milligram per cubic meter (mg/m³) sensitivities that differ significantly from indoor microgram per cubic meter (µg/m³) concentrations123. The adoption of the ISO 16000 standard represents a notable improvement in this regard, enhancing the study and control activities related to IAQ and facilitating a more coherent and comprehensive approach to IAQ management124.

'''European Union Indoor Air Quality Legislative Framework'''

Within the European Union's legislative framework, there are key directives that touch upon maintaining certain standards for IAQ. However, these references are rather vague and not specifically focused on IAQ in an explicit manner.

The 1989 Council Directive concerning the minimum safety and health requirements for the workplace mandated sufficient fresh air to accommodate the working conditions and physical demands placed on workers. It emphasised the need to maintain working ventilation systems, including forced ventilation, and addressed issues related to air-conditioning or mechanical ventilation installations to ensure workers' comfort and health. Similarly, Regulation EU No 305/2011 outlines conditions for the marketing of construction products, including aspects related to hygiene, health, and the environment. While this regulation touches on the release of toxic gases, emissions of dangerous substances, and particles into indoor and outdoor air, it does not explicitly delve into comprehensive standards for IAQ125.

Both directives acknowledge the importance of IAQ in their broader contexts, such as worker health and safety and environmental impact, yet they lack specific, detailed guidelines exclusively dedicated to IAQ. As such, while these directives set a foundation for addressing related concerns, they do not offer comprehensive and focused guidance for maintaining optimal IAQ standards.

=== ''' References ''' ===

121 Gaetano Settimo et al, “Indoor Air Quality: A Focus on the European Legislation and State-of-the-Art Research in Italy,” MDPI, 1 March 2020. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/11/4/370#B6-atmosphere-11-00370

122 Gaetano Settimo et al, “Indoor Air Quality: A Focus on the European Legislation and State-of-the-Art Research in Italy,” MDPI, 1 March 2020. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/11/4/370#B6-atmosphere-11-00370

123 Gaetano Settimo et al, “Indoor Air Quality: A Focus on the European Legislation and State-of-the-Art Research in Italy,” MDPI, 1 March 2020. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/11/4/370#B6-atmosphere-11-00370

124 Gaetano Settimo et al, “Indoor Air Quality: A Focus on the European Legislation and State-of-the-Art Research in Italy,” MDPI, 1 March 2020. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/11/4/370#B6-atmosphere-11-00370

125 Tyler a Jacobson et al, “Direct Human Health Risks of Increased Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide,” Nature, 08 July 2019. Available online: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-019-0323-1

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

J. Indoor Air Quality and the Sustainable Development Goals

2023-09-20T11:13:03Z

USEV:

The '''Sustainable Development Goals''' are a set of 17 interconnected objectives established by the United Nations in 2015 to address a wide range of global challenges and ensure a more sustainable and equitable future for all. These goals encompass diverse areas such as poverty, hunger, health, education, gender equality, clean water, affordable and clean energy, decent work, and climate action, among others. These goals aim to tackle both social and environmental issues, with a focus on eradicating poverty and inequality while safeguarding the planet's ecosystems. They provide a universal framework for governments, organisations, and individuals to collaborate and take concerted actions to create positive and lasting impacts on people's lives and the planet we share.

IAQ is intricately linked to the achievement of several Sustainable Development Goals, reflecting its profound impact on global health and environmental sustainability. The World Health Organisation plays a significant role by aligning its efforts with these international commitments. As the custodian agency for reporting on SDG indicator 7.1.2, the World Health Organisation maintains the global household energy database to monitor the transition to cleaner fuels and stove combinations in households, addressing the urgent need to increase global clean fuels and technologies usage117.

IAQ interventions are also paramount for Goal Area 3 which focuses on promoting healthier living environments and addressing targets related to preventable deaths in new-borns and children, reducing non-communicable disease mortality, and minimising deaths and illnesses caused by hazardous chemicals and pollution. The World Health Organisation also support assessments of disease burden caused by household air pollution stemming from polluting fuels and technologies, highlighting the direct link between IAQ and SDG 3 – Good Health and Well-Being118.

Achieving targets set out in Goal Area 11 – Sustainable Cities and Communities – also requires IAQ interventions in order to support the development of inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable urban environments. Several key targets, including ensuring access to safe housing and basic services, providing sustainable transport systems, and addressing air quality concerns, underscore the significance of IAQ improvements within the urban context119.

Moreover, Goal Area 3 – Climate Action – holds a critical perspective on the role of IAQ in mitigating the impacts of climate change. This is underscored by the focus of targets 13.2 and 13.3, which emphasise the integration of climate change measures into policies and the enhancement of awareness. Given that indoor air pollution stands as a significant contributor to ambient air pollution, there is a critical imperative to intertwine climate action with IAQ initiatives120.

The international normative framework for addressing air quality, both in a broader sense and with specific regard to IAQ, is anchored in the Sustainable Development Goals and the guidelines set forth by the World Health Organization, along with other pertinent technical documents. This framework not only guides European legislation but also shapes the global understanding of the importance of air quality management.

=== ''' References ''' ===

117 The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

118 The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

119 The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

120 The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants. ; The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

F. Interplay Between Outdoor and Indoor Air Quality: The Dynamics of Sources, Ventilation, and Interactions

2023-09-20T09:59:07Z

USEV:

Despite the notion that opening a window can freshen the composition of indoor air, it is essential to recognise that outdoor air may contain a significant load of pollutants(88). Certain segments of the population, such as children, the elderly, pregnant women, and those with pre-existing health conditions, are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of air pollution on health(89). A notable concern is that individuals residing in low-income households are more likely to live near busy roads or industrial areas, leading to heightened exposure to air pollution(90).

The quality of indoor air is profoundly influenced by both indoor and outdoor sources of pollution(91). Key assumptions for synergy analysis include the understanding that outdoor air can infiltrate indoor environments and that indoor air pollution resulting from incomplete fuel combustion poses a direct health risk(92). Moreover, outdoor air quality can impact IAQ(93).

Ventilation and insulation play crucial roles in determining the extent to which outdoor air pollutants affect indoor environments. Inadequate ventilation, where insufficient outdoor air enters indoor spaces, can lead to the accumulation of pollutants at levels that pose health and comfort challenges(94). Various mechanisms, including infiltration, natural ventilation, and mechanical ventilation, facilitate the exchange of outdoor and indoor air. These mechanisms can either bring outdoor pollutants indoors or effectively expel indoor pollutants, affecting IAQ. Interestingly, household air pollution, is a significant contributor to ambient air pollution, further underlines the interplay between indoor and outdoor air quality(95).

Reducing outdoor air pollution directly translates to a reduction in indoor pollution(96). As the performance of fireplaces, stoves, or boilers improves, the indoor-outdoor ratios decrease, indicating a reduction in the infiltration of outdoor pollutants. While existing literature predominantly focuses on various sources of pollution from biomass combustion, it lacks comparisons between different technologies. Nonetheless, the synergies between the objectives of curbing ambient air pollution and reducing indoor air pollution from residential biomass combustion are evident, highlighting the interconnectedness of indoor and outdoor air quality challenges(97).

=== ''' References ''' ===

(88) The European Environment Agency, “Air Quality in Europe 2019 Report,” Publications Office of the European Union, 2019. Available online: https://www.miteco.gob.es/content/dam/miteco/es/calidad-y-evaluacion-ambiental/temas/atmosfera-y-calidad-del-aire/air-quality-in-europe_2019_tcm30-187944.pdf

(89) The European Environment Agency, “Air Quality in Europe 2019 Report,” Publications Office of the European Union, 2019. Available online: https://www.miteco.gob.es/content/dam/miteco/es/calidad-y-evaluacion-ambiental/temas/atmosfera-y-calidad-del-aire/air-quality-in-europe_2019_tcm30-187944.pdf

(90) The European Environment Agency, “Air Quality in Europe 2019 Report,” Publications Office of the European Union, 2019. Available online: https://www.miteco.gob.es/content/dam/miteco/es/calidad-y-evaluacion-ambiental/temas/atmosfera-y-calidad-del-aire/air-quality-in-europe_2019_tcm30-187944.pdf

(91) The European Court of Auditors, “Special Report no 23/2018: Air Pollution: Our health still insufficiently protected,” 10 September 2018. Available online: https://www.eca.europa.eu/en/publications?did=46723

(92) Study to support the impact assessment for a revision of the EU Ambient Air Quality Directives, the European Commission, October 2022. Available online: https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/a05c2e91-54db-11ed-92ed-01aa75ed71a1/language-en

(93) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm ;The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(94) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(95) The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

(96) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(97) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

E. Biomass Combustion and Indoor Air Quality

2023-09-20T09:25:10Z

USEV:

Biomass combustion presents one of the most significant challenges for IAQ particularly concerning residential heating, as revealed by recent data(83). In 2020, nearly half of total anthropogenic PM2.5 emissions in the European Union originated from biomass combustion for residential heating, with 83% of domestic PM2.5 emissions attributed to biomass use. This poses substantial challenges for ambient air quality directives and the zero pollution action plan. While projections indicate a decrease in residential biomass use, with a 19% reduction by 2030 and a further 22% decline by 2050, the residential sector will still partially depend on biomass for energy needs(84).

Key technologies for biomass combustion encompass residential boilers, stoves, and fireplaces, which are major sources of both indoor and outdoor particulate matter (PM)(85). These emissions are influenced by factors such as fuel properties, technology, and user behaviour. Although the decline in residential biomass use has led to reduced fine particle emissions, IAQ remains a concern due to the persistent use of these technologies. Vulnerable groups such as children, the elderly, and those with pre-existing health conditions are particularly susceptible to the health effects of indoor and outdoor air pollution, especially in regions where energy poverty drives the combustion of low-quality solid fuels(86). Such practices expose low-income populations to PM and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) indoors and outdoors, compounding health risks for already disadvantaged individuals(87).

=== ''' References ''' ===

(83) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(84) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(85) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants

(86) The European Environment Agency, “Air Quality in Europe 2019 Report,” Publications Office of the European Union, 2019. Available online: https://www.miteco.gob.es/content/dam/miteco/es/calidad-y-evaluacion-ambiental/temas/atmosfera-y-calidad-del-aire/air-quality-in-europe_2019_tcm30-187944.pdf

(87) The European Environment Agency, “Air Quality in Europe 2019 Report,” Publications Office of the European Union, 2019. Available online: https://www.miteco.gob.es/content/dam/miteco/es/calidad-y-evaluacion-ambiental/temas/atmosfera-y-calidad-del-aire/air-quality-in-europe_2019_tcm30-187944.pdf

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

D. Indoor Air Quality: Pollutants, Sources, and Influencing Factors

2023-09-20T08:02:40Z

USEV:

Indoor air quality is impacted by several pollutants and contaminants that are influenced by a multitude of factors, stemming from both indoor and outdoor sources(50). These sources include human activities such as smoking, burning solid fuels, cooking, and cleaning, as well as emissions from building materials, equipment, furniture, and biological contaminants like mould, viruses, and allergens. Common contaminants include:

• ''' Allergens''', substances that can induce allergic reactions by triggering the immune system. They can circulate in the air and persist on furniture and carpets for extended periods as well as emanate from pets and pests(51).

• ''' Asbestos''', a fibrous material once used in fireproof building materials, can release microscopic fibres into the air when disturbed, posing a carcinogenic risk(52).

• '''Carbon monoxide''', a toxic and odourless gas, emerges from burning fuels, such as gasoline kerosene, in various appliances and systems, necessitating proper venting to prevent air contamination(53).

• '''Elevated Carbon dioxide (CO2) levels''' emerge from both indoor and outdoor sources and hinge upon ventilation adequacy, with human occupancy being a significant contributor(54). Elevated carbon dioxide levels (<5,000 ppm) may pose direct health risks, including inflammation, cognitive decline, bone and kidney issues, oxidative stress, and endothelial dysfunction. Further research is needed to identify sources, mitigation strategies, and effects of chronic or intermittent exposure to higher indoor CO2 concentrations(55).

• '''Formaldehyde''', with a strong smell, is present in pressed wood furniture, cabinets, and coatings, as well as adhesives and paints, and is recognised as a human carcinogen(56).

• '''Lead''', a naturally occurring metal, has been utilised in diverse products like gasoline, paint, plumbing pipes, and cosmetics, posing health hazards(57).

• '''Legionella bacterium''', found in warm, stagnant water. It spreads through aerosolisation from sources like cooling towers and showers. Commonly affecting immuno-weak individuals, Legionella is hard to detect and resists chlorine treatment due to biofilm formation.

• '''Mould''', a type of fungus, thrives in damp environments indoors and outdoors, presenting potential health risks(58).

• '''Ozone''' is formed through various sources including sunlight, lightning, and pollution, and it can be harmful to human health and particularly in indoor environments due to its reactivity with common indoor substances and skin oils(59).

• '''Pesticides''', substances used to control pests like plants and insects, can carry health risks to humans(60).

• '''Radon''', an odourless and colourless gas originating from soil decay, can infiltrate indoor spaces through gaps and cracks, contributing to lung cancer cases(61).

• '''Smoke (indoor combustion)''', produced from combustion processes like cigarette smoking, cookstoves, and wildfires, contains toxic chemicals such as formaldehyde and lead(62) as well as particulate matter.

• '''Volatile organic compounds''', a wide range of chemicals emitted by various products such as paints, cleaning supplies, and building materials. These compounds can have short- and long-term adverse health effects and are often found at higher concentrations indoors than outdoors(63).

Within indoor environments, various pollutants can profoundly impact well-being and health(64) and these are influenced by the presence of a variety of sources and factors. These include the presence of chemicals, the existence of radon, the prevalence of fine and ultrafine particles, the occurrence of microbial agents, the presence of pets and pests, humidity levels, ventilation effectiveness, and temperature control.

'''Chemicals''': The presence of specific chemicals in indoor environments can lead to irritations of the eyes, nose, and throat, accompanied by unpleasant odours. While these chemicals might trigger short-term discomfort, their long-term health effects remain insufficiently understood, especially with prolonged exposure(65).

'''Radon''': A naturally occurring gas found in soil and rock, radon can infiltrate buildings and heighten the risk of lung cancer when present in indoor air(66). Notably, several member states of the European Union have recorded elevated radon concentrations(67).

'''Particulate Matter (PM):''' Coarse (10-2.5 µm), fine (2.5 µm), and ultrafine particles (0.1 µm) in ambient air are known to trigger adverse health effects, impacting the respiratory and cardiovascular systems(68). Although some particles originate from outdoor sources, indoor combustion for heating and cooking, along with chemical reactions between ozone and volatile organic compounds, contribute to particle formation indoors(69). Furthermore, the potential impact on IAQ of man-made nanoparticles (0.1 µm), increasingly employed in consumer products, necessitates further investigation(70).

'''Microbes''': Microorganisms such as fungi and viruses can influence the development of asthma and allergies that affect the airways. Damp indoor environments, especially those with mould, can release allergenic substances from fungi, leading to health complications. Additionally, indoor air can serve as a transmission medium for specific virus infections, some of which are linked to increased asthma and allergy incidence(71).

'''Pets and Pests''': Indoor allergens emanate from pests, house dust mites, cockroaches, and, particularly in urban settings, mice(72). These allergens can trigger respiratory diseases like rhinitis and asthma. The level of exposure varies with the environment(73).

'''Humidity''': Indoor humidity requires an optimal range. Low humidity levels can cause skin dryness, eye irritation, and nasal discomfort, whereas excessive humidity can lead to water damage, mould growth, and dust mite proliferation(74).

'''Ventilation''': Proper ventilation significantly influences IAQ, serving as a crucial measure to mitigate health risks. Inadequate ventilation rates and elevated carbon dioxide concentrations indoors have been associated with significant health consequences(75). Moreover, ventilation rates have been linked to work performance in office environments and the academic performance of school children(76).

'''Temperature''': Appropriate indoor temperatures are vital for human comfort and well-being. Extreme temperatures also pose significant health risks(77). Excessively high temperatures can worsen the effects of inadequate humidity(78).

This compilation is by no means exhaustive, and substantial knowledge gaps persist regarding the primary factors as well as sources contributing to poor IAQ.

Numerous additional complexities intricately influence IAQ, including the age and maintenance of sources(79). For instance, an improperly calibrated stove might emit substantially higher levels of carbon monoxide compared to a well-adjusted one(80). Moreover, specific sources like smoking, cleaning, redecorating, or engaging in hobbies intermittently release pollutants, while unvented or malfunctioning appliances, along with improper product usage, can elevate indoor pollutant levels to potentially hazardous extents(81). Additionally, certain pollutants can be situationally specific, such as chloramines in swimming pools. Beyond these intricacies affecting sources and influencing factors related to IAQ, substantial gaps in knowledge persist regarding sources, factors, contaminants, pollutants, and the broader dynamics shaping IAQ(82).

=== ''' References ''' ===

(50) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(51) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801 ; The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(52) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801 ; The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(53) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801 ; The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(54) Bowen Du et al, "Indoor CO2 concentrations and cognitive function: A critical review," International Journal of Indoor Environment and Health, 19 June 2020. Available online: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ina.12706

(55) Tyler a Jacobson et al, “Direct Human Health Risks of Increased Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide,” Nature, 08 July 2019. Available online: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-019-0323-1

(56) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801 ; The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(57) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(58) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801 ; The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(59) "Outdoor ozone and building related symptoms in the BASE study" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-04-09. Retrieved 2012-03-02.

(60) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(61) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(62) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(63) Lawrence Wang et al, Advanced Air and Noise Pollution Control: Volume 2 (New Jersey, Springer, 2005). Available online: https://books.google.es/books?id=X6iZsE1Xq1EC&pg=PA247&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false

(64) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(65) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0 ; Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801

(66) Sarah Darby et al, “Radon in Homes and Risk of Lung Cancer: collaborative analysis of individual data from 13 European case-control studies,” National Library of Medicine, 27 January 2005. Available online: https://www.bmj.com/content/330/7485/223.long ; Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-3/2-determining-factors.htm ; Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801

(67) The European Environment Agency, “Radon,” 28 June 2022. Available online: https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/environmental-burden-of-cancer/radon#:~:text=The%20Basic%20Safety%20Standards%20Directive,radon%20concentrations%20in%20dwellings%20and

(68) The World Health Organisation, “Health aspects of air pollution with particulate matter, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide. Report on a WHO working group. Copenhagen,” WHO Regional Office for Europe, 2003. Available online: http://www.euro.who.int/document/e79097.pdf)
The World Health Organisation, “Effects of air pollution on children’s health and development: Report on a WHO working group,” The European Centre for Environment and Health Bonn Office, 2005. Available Online: http://www.euro.who.int/document/E86575.pdf

(69) Amir Afshari, “Characterization of indoor sources of fine and ultrafine particles: a study conducted in a full-scale chamber,” National Library of Medicine, April 2005. Available online: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15737157/ ; Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-3/2-determining-factors.htm ; Ching-Wing Lam et al, “A review of carbon nanotube toxicity and assessment of potential occupational and environmental health risks,” National Library of Medicine, 2006. Available online: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16686422/

(70) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0 ; Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801

(71) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-3/2-determining-factors.htm

(72) Gennaro D’Amato et al, “Pollen-related allergy in Europe,” National Library of Medicine, Jun 1998. Available online: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9689338/ ; Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-3/2-determining-factors.htm ; Gunnar D Nielsen et al, “IgE-mediated asthma and rhinitis I: a role of allergen exposure?,” National Library of Medicine, 2002. Available online: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12076303/

(73) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-3/2-determining-factors.htm

(74) Leena M Reinikainen et al, “Significance of humidity and temperature on skin and upper airway symptoms,” Research Gate, January 2004. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6728915_Significance_of_humidity_and_temperature_on_skin_and_upper_airway_symptoms ; Peder Wolkoff, “the Dichotomy of Relative Humidity on Indoor Air Quality,” Environmental International, September 20007. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6331976_The_dichotomy_of_relative_humidity_on_indoor_air_quality

(75) O A Seppänen et al, “Association of ventilation rates and CO2 concentrations with health and other responses in commercial and institutional buildings,” National Library of Medicine: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10649857/

(76) O A Seppänen et al, “Ventilation and performance in office work,” National Library of Medicine, February 2006. Available online: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16420495/
Pawel Wargocki et al, “The Effects of Outdoor Air Supply Rate and Supply Air Filter Condition in Classrooms on the Performance of Schoolwork by Children,” Taylor and Francis, 5 January 2007. Available online: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10789669.2007.10390950

(77) Jonathan Healy, “Excess winter mortality in Europe: A cross country analysis identifying key risk factors,” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, November 2023. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/9041878_Excess_winter_mortality_in_Europe_A_cross_country_analysis_identifying_key_risk_factors ; Tom Kosatsky, “The 2003 European heat waves,” Eurosurveillance, 2005. Available online: https://www.eurosurveillance.org/content/10.2807/esm.10.07.00552-en

(78) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-3/2-determining-factors.htm

(79) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801

(80) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801

(81) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801

(82) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

C. Indoor Air Quality Relationship to Human Health

2023-09-20T07:35:11Z

USEV:

Air stands as a fundamental life-building element, and the quality of indoor air in settings like homes, schools, public structures, healthcare facilities, and private residences plays a pivotal role in people's well-being and overall health(21). Globally, household air pollution caused a staggering loss of 86 million healthy life years in 2019, with the heaviest burden borne by women and children in low- and middle-income nations(22). An estimated 3.2 million deaths in 2020 were attributed to household air pollution, including over 237,000 deaths of children under five(23). In the European Union, air pollution in its entirety emerges as the foremost environmental health concern, causing an estimated 400,000 premature deaths annually(24). Poor air quality is associated with a range of severe health issues, including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cardiovascular disorders, strokes, and lung cancer, among others(25), while also intensifying morbidity and mortality related to cardiovascular and respiratory conditions(26).

'''Both short-term''' and '''long-term exposure''' to indoor air pollution can give rise to various health complications(27). Short-term effects encompass symptoms such as eye, nose, and throat irritation, along with headaches, dizziness, and fatigue, which are generally transient and treatable(28). However, these symptoms can exacerbate pre-existing conditions like asthma(29). Conversely, certain health consequences may manifest only after prolonged and repeated periods of exposure(30). Sustained exposure to particulate matter and other pollutants in household air pollution can inflame airways and lungs, impair immune responses, and diminish blood's oxygen-carrying capacity(31), potentially leading to respiratory diseases, heart ailments, and cancer(32).

Furthermore, '''specific demographic groups''', including children, women, the elderly, and individuals with pre-existing conditions, as well as socioeconomically disadvantaged households, are especially '''vulnerable''' to indoor air pollution(33). Vulnerability depends on the specific pollutant and a group's susceptibility to it(34). Studies indicate children's heightened susceptibility to pollutants like tobacco smoke, lead, and phosphorous-containing pesticides, which can cause coughing, bronchitis, worsened asthma, and other respiratory illnesses(35). Globally, almost half of all deaths from lower respiratory infections in children under five are attributed to inhaling particulate matter from household pollution(36). Elderly individuals might be particularly vulnerable to air pollution due to reduced chemical elimination capacity with age, though they may also exhibit reduced sensitivity to certain effects like eye or nose irritation. People with cardiovascular issues are more susceptible to particles, while those with respiratory ailments like asthma are more prone to various air pollutants(37).

Indoor air pollution, including particulate matter, allergens, endotoxin, and mould, has been linked to '''compromised health''' and '''performance''' in both children and adults(38). Certain chemicals may induce irritation of the eyes and upper airways, affecting cognitive abilities(39). Direct links have also been established between exposure to nitric oxide and adverse cognitive outcomes, including reduced verbal abilities and executive functioning(40).

Among the 3.2 million global deaths attributed to household air pollution, 21% result from lower '''respiratory''' infections, particularly affecting children(41). Additionally, 19% are related to chronic pulmonary disease and 6% to lung cancer(42). The presence of mould and humidity levels, impacting mould prevalence indoors, correlates with long-term health effects, notably asthma severity(43). Moreover, household pollution exposure during pregnancy has also been linked to altered lung development, subsequently elevating the risk of pneumonia within a child's first year(44). Specific pollutants like radon, asbestos, arsenic, tobacco smoke, and others in indoor air have been associated with cancer, especially lung cancer(45).

Research has also shown that markers of '''cardiovascular''' disease can manifest even at ozone levels lower than WHO guidelines(46). In healthy adults, short-term exposure to both indoor and outdoor ozone has been linked to elevated blood platelets, a clotting risk factor, and increased blood pressure(47). Astonishingly, 32% of the 3.2 million global deaths due to household pollution exposure result from ischemic heart disease, while an additional 23% stem from stroke due to pollutants from solid fuels and kerosene in indoor environments(48). Evidence also points to connections between household air pollution and low birth weight, tuberculosis, cataracts, and cancers of the nasopharynx and larynx(49).

However, the '''complete scope of health effects stemming from indoor air pollution remains largely unknown''', characterised by numerous gaps in knowledge. This issue exhibits a complexity and prevalence that surpasses the current grasp of research.

=== ''' References ''' ===

(21) The World Health Organisation, “WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality,” the WHO regional office for Europe, 2010. Available online: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789289002134

(22) The World Health Organisation, Household Air Pollution, 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

(23) The World Health Organisation, Household Air Pollution, 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

(24) The European Commission, “Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: A Europe that Protects: Clean Air for All,” the European Commission, 17 May 2018. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52018DC0330

(25) The European Commission, “Air”, 2023. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air_en

(26) The World Health Organisation, “WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines,” the World Health Organisation, 2021. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/345334/9789240034433-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

(27) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(28) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(29) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(30) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(31) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(32) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801 ; The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(33) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0 ; The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm ; The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

(34) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0

(35) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0

(36) The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

(37) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0

(38) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(39) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-3/2-determining-factors.htm

(40) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(41) The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

(42) The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

(43) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(44) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(45) Sarah Darby et al, “Radon in Homes and Risk of Lung Cancer: collaborative analysis of individual data from 13 European case-control studies,” National Library of Medicine, 27 January 2005. Available online: https://www.bmj.com/content/330/7485/223.long ;
The European Commission, “Air”, 2023. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air_en

(46) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(47) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(48) The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

(49) The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

B. Understanding Indoor Air: Challenges and Differences from Outdoor Air

2023-09-20T07:26:45Z

USEV:

While the prevailing perception is that pollution primarily poses a risk outdoors(10), it is important to recognise that indoor environments can harbour pollution levels that are not only comparable but often exceed those found outdoors(11). Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) can be significantly compromised by elements like smoke, mould and chemicals present in certain paints, furnishings, and cleaning products(12). In contrast to ambient air quality, which pertains to outdoor settings, indoor air quality encompasses the air within and surrounding buildings, with an emphasis on the comfort, well-being, and health of occupants. Given that Europeans spend 90% of their time indoors(13) and that indoor spaces can sometimes be more polluted than outdoor areas(14), comprehending the full scope of this issue and devising strategies to enhance air quality is seen as paramount both in Europe and globally.

Since the 1970s, the matter of IAQ has garnered considerable attention, with the World Health Organization addressing it in various documents and forums(15). This problem is acknowledged as a pressing concern spanning low, middle, and high-income countries alike(16). Individuals can encounter air pollutants in a range of indoor settings, encompassing private residences, offices, educational institutions, and public transportation systems(17). The complexity arises from the fact that indoor air often comprises a blend of diverse pollutants, making it intricate to pinpoint the health implications linked to specific exposures(18). Furthermore, the quality of indoor air is influenced by a multitude of factors, including the activities conducted in each space, the quality of building materials and finishes, the furnishings present, and even the level of occupancy, among others(19). Moreover, it's worth noting that indoor environments can also be impacted by outdoor pollutants seeping in(20).

=== ''' References ''' ===
(10) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(11) Abinaya Sekar et al, “Analysis of benzene air quality standards, monitoring methods and concentrations in indoor and outdoor environment,” Heliyon, 29 November 2019. Available online: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31844766/

(12) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(13) Maya I Mitova et al, “Human chemical signature: Investigation on the influence of human presence and selected activities on concentrations of airborne constituents,” Environmental Pollution, February 2020. Available online: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749119334268

(14) Abinaya Sekar et al, “Analysis of benzene air quality standards, monitoring methods and concentrations in indoor and outdoor environment,” Heliyon, 29 November 2019. Available online: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31844766/

(15) Gaetano Settimo et al, “Indoor Air Quality: A Focus on the European Legislation and State-of-the-Art Research in Italy,” MDPI, 1 March 2020. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/11/4/370#B6-atmosphere-11-00370

(16) Michael J Suess, “The Indoor Air Quality Programme of the WHO Regional Office for Europe,” the WHO regional office for Europe, 1992, 2, 180–193. Available online: https://www.aivc.org/sites/default/files/airbase_6487.pdf ; Lars Mølhave et al, “The right to healthy indoor air: Status by 2002,” National Library of Medicine, 2003. Available online: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12572915/ ; The World Health Organisation, “WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality,” the WHO regional office for Europe, 2010. Available online: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789289002134

(17) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0

(18) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0

(19) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0 ; Gaetano Settimo et al, “Indoor Air Quality: A Focus on the European Legislation and State-of-the-Art Research in Italy,” MDPI, 1 March 2020. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/11/4/370#B6-atmosphere-11-00370

(20) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

A. The Importance of Clean Air and Today's Air Quality Concerns

2023-09-20T07:17:59Z

USEV:

The concern over air quality dates back to ancient times, with even Hippocratic principles of environmental health addressing this issue(1). As far back as 1306, King Edward of England took action by passing legislation that prohibited the burning of sea-coal due to its combustion emissions(2). Clean air stands as a fundamental cornerstone of life, encompassing not only human existence but also the broader biosphere. Unfortunately, contemporary human activities such as industrial processes, energy generation, residential heating, and transportation persist in generating pollutants that significantly degrade air quality. The repercussions of this deterioration are vast, with air pollution inflicting significant harm upon the environment and ecosystems(3).

Beyond the catastrophic environmental damage, the consequences of these activities reverberate profoundly in terms of human health and overall well-being. Outdoor and indoor air pollution collectively contribute to an alarming annual toll of 6.7 million premature deaths(4). In fact, it is now estimated to be on par with other major global risks such as unhealthy diet and tobacco smoking(5). Air pollution is now recognised as the single biggest environmental threat to human life(6). Within the European Union, the consequences for citizens' quality of life remain substantial, especially in urban hubs where persistently inadequate air quality standards pose an ongoing health risk(7). The economic impact is also substantial, as air pollution is projected to cost the European Union an annual total of 330 billion euros(8). This financial burden encompasses the consequences of disease exacerbated by air pollution, as well as the associated loss of productivity and elevated healthcare expenses(9).

=== ''' References ''' ===

(1) Hippocrates, On airs, waters, and places (White Fish: Kessinger Publishing, 2004)

(2) Eloi Laurent, “Air (ine)quality in the European Union,” the National Library of Medicine, 26 March 2022. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8960211/#CR7

(3) The European Commission, “Air”, 2023. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air_en

(4) The World Health Organisation, Household Air Pollution, 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

(5) The European Environment Agency, “Air Quality in Europe 2019 Report,” Publications Office of the European Union, 2019. Available online: https://www.miteco.gob.es/content/dam/miteco/es/calidad-y-evaluacion-ambiental/temas/atmosfera-y-calidad-del-aire/air-quality-in-europe_2019_tcm30-187944.pdf ; The United Nations, “Political declaration of the third high-level meeting of the General Assembly on the prevention and control of non-communicable diseases,” The United Nations General Assembly, 10 October 2018. Available online: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/1648984

(6) The World Health Organisation, “WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines,” the World Health Organisation, 2021. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/345334/9789240034433-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

(7) The European Commission, “Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: A Europe that Protects: Clean Air for All,” the European Commission, 17 May 2018. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52018DC0330

(8) The European Commission, “Air”, 2023. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air_en

(9) The World Health Organisation, “WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines,” the World Health Organisation, 2021. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/345334/9789240034433-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

O. Horizon Europe Projects

2023-09-20T07:13:57Z

USEV:

The European Union has begun to place emphasis on filling knowledge and policy gaps vis-a-vis IAQ, particularly considering the increased times European citizen spent indoors in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. This epitomised in '''seven projects funded via Horizon Europe programme''' under the topic ''' Indoor air quality and health''' : InChildHealth, INQUIRE, K-HEALTHinAIR, LEARN, SynAir-G, and TwinAIR, alongside EDIAQI.

The '''InChildHealth''' project integrates health, environmental, technical, and social sciences to assess IAQ and its impact on school children. It examines chemicals, particles, microorganisms, and physical factors in various spaces. By evaluating IAQ effects on health, including respiratory issues and allergies, through epidemiological studies and interventions in European cities, the project aims to enhance understanding of IAQ using novel approaches like cytotoxicity testing. The consortium covers diverse European countries and aims to create an integrated risk assessment tool for pollutants, develop user-friendly monitoring technology, and disseminate findings as guidelines to improve IAQ management in schools.

The '''INQUIRE''' project aims to enhance IAQ and protect the health of European citizens, especially children. Focused on infants and young children up to 5 years old, the project conducts research to identify and reduce hazardous chemical and biological factors that affect IAQ in homes. Through innovative and non-invasive sampling methods, over 200 homes in eight countries are monitored for a month to understand IAQ determinants. The project's multidisciplinary approach combines chemical, biological, and toxicity analyses to identify sources and prioritise pollutants. Novel technologies and strategies for improving IAQ are tested, leading to evidence-based recommendations and potential policy strategies.

The '''Knowledge for improving indoor air quality and health''' (K-HEALTHinAIR) project focuses on assessing the effects of IAQ on health through extensive monitoring of chemical and biological pollutants in representative indoor environments across the EU. The project combines theoretical analysis, clinical trials, and tests to understand pollutant sources, interactions, and correlations with health issues. Affordable IAQ measurements and tools will be developed to enhance monitoring and mitigation efforts. The project aims to provide structured knowledge in an accessible format for public authorities, policymakers, and citizens, promoting informed decision-making and potentially influencing new IAQ standards. K-HEALTHinAIR seeks comprehensive engagement to ensure its results have a significant impact.

The '''LEARN project''' aims to assess IAQ in European schools and its effects on children's health and cognition. The project focuses on developing novel sensors, advanced biosensors, and effective remediation strategies to improve IAQ and children's well-being. Key elements include evaluating IAQ and exposure levels in schools across different countries, measuring concentrations of volatile organic compounds and ultrafine particles, assessing potential toxicity of indoor air pollutants, and creating a strategy for air remediation using advanced filtration systems and air purifiers.

The '''SynAir-G project''' addresses the rising complexity of indoor air pollutants and their potential synergistic effects on human health, particularly impacting susceptible groups like children, asthma and allergy sufferers, and those from disadvantaged backgrounds. With a focus on school environments, the project aims to uncover and quantify synergistic interactions between pollutants, develop novel sensors, and eco-friendly air-purifying devices, and provide accessible health outcome data through gamified applications and prospective monitoring. This effort will not only enhance IAQ assessment but also contribute to regulatory frameworks and interventions for improved health outcomes.

The '''TwinAIR project''' introduces technological solutions aimed at enhancing air quality across a broad spectrum of indoor living contexts. The project's primary objective is to investigate the adverse effects of indoor air pollutants on occupants' health, fostering community awareness and informing policy-making for public health improvement. The project's multifaceted goals include establishing a framework for identifying health hazards related to indoor air pollution sources, assessing factors influencing indoor and outdoor air quality, promoting the adoption of integrated modular technologies, detecting synergistic effects of various exposures, evaluating associated health effects, determining optimal IAQ conditions, developing intelligent tools for air quality management, and contributing to open research data initiatives. Through these efforts, TwinAIR aims to comprehensively address IAQ challenges and their impact on human health, ultimately contributing to healthier indoor environments and informed policy decisions.

'''EDIAQI, short for "Evidence Driven Air Quality Improvement",''' seeks to uncover the sources, exposure pathways, and health impacts associated with indoor air pollution. With a focus on European cities, the EDIAQI project addresses the challenges posed by indoor air pollution through a comprehensive approach that includes both short-term, high-intensity measurements and long-term, large-scale monitoring. Recognising the heightened exposure to indoor pollutants and the increased risk of early-life respiratory diseases, EDIAQI aims to bridge the knowledge gap in IAQ by pursuing the following objectives:

'''•''' Validating user-friendly indoor air quality monitoring solutions.

'''•''' Creating a Europe-wide knowledge base for indoor air pollutants.

'''•''' Providing guidelines for improving IAQ.

'''•''' Ensuring data access to stakeholders.

'''•''' Supporting policy-making with evidence.

'''•''' Supporting the European Green Deal's Zero-Pollution Action Plan.

Ultimately, EDIAQI's multifaceted efforts are geared towards enhancing our understanding of IAQ, guiding regulatory measures, and promoting healthier indoor environments.

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

O. Horizon Europe Projects

2023-09-20T07:11:44Z

USEV:

The European Union has begun to place emphasis on filling knowledge and policy gaps vis-a-vis IAQ, particularly considering the increased times European citizen spent indoors in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. This epitomised in '''seven projects funded via Horizon Europe programme''' under the topic ''' Indoor air quality and health''' : InChildHealth, INQUIRE, K-HEALTHinAIR, LEARN, SynAir-G, and TwinAIR, alongside EDIAQI.

The '''InChildHealth''' project integrates health, environmental, technical, and social sciences to assess IAQ and its impact on school children. It examines chemicals, particles, microorganisms, and physical factors in various spaces. By evaluating IAQ effects on health, including respiratory issues and allergies, through epidemiological studies and interventions in European cities, the project aims to enhance understanding of IAQ using novel approaches like cytotoxicity testing. The consortium covers diverse European countries and aims to create an integrated risk assessment tool for pollutants, develop user-friendly monitoring technology, and disseminate findings as guidelines to improve IAQ management in schools.

The '''INQUIRE''' project aims to enhance IAQ and protect the health of European citizens, especially children. Focused on infants and young children up to 5 years old, the project conducts research to identify and reduce hazardous chemical and biological factors that affect IAQ in homes. Through innovative and non-invasive sampling methods, over 200 homes in eight countries are monitored for a month to understand IAQ determinants. The project's multidisciplinary approach combines chemical, biological, and toxicity analyses to identify sources and prioritise pollutants. Novel technologies and strategies for improving IAQ are tested, leading to evidence-based recommendations and potential policy strategies.

The '''Knowledge for improving indoor air quality and health''' (K-HEALTHinAIR) project focuses on assessing the effects of IAQ on health through extensive monitoring of chemical and biological pollutants in representative indoor environments across the EU. The project combines theoretical analysis, clinical trials, and tests to understand pollutant sources, interactions, and correlations with health issues. Affordable IAQ measurements and tools will be developed to enhance monitoring and mitigation efforts. The project aims to provide structured knowledge in an accessible format for public authorities, policymakers, and citizens, promoting informed decision-making and potentially influencing new IAQ standards. K-HEALTHinAIR seeks comprehensive engagement to ensure its results have a significant impact.

The '''LEARN project''' aims to assess IAQ in European schools and its effects on children's health and cognition. The project focuses on developing novel sensors, advanced biosensors, and effective remediation strategies to improve IAQ and children's well-being. Key elements include evaluating IAQ and exposure levels in schools across different countries, measuring concentrations of volatile organic compounds and ultrafine particles, assessing potential toxicity of indoor air pollutants, and creating a strategy for air remediation using advanced filtration systems and air purifiers.

The '''SynAir-G project''' addresses the rising complexity of indoor air pollutants and their potential synergistic effects on human health, particularly impacting susceptible groups like children, asthma and allergy sufferers, and those from disadvantaged backgrounds. With a focus on school environments, the project aims to uncover and quantify synergistic interactions between pollutants, develop novel sensors, and eco-friendly air-purifying devices, and provide accessible health outcome data through gamified applications and prospective monitoring. This effort will not only enhance IAQ assessment but also contribute to regulatory frameworks and interventions for improved health outcomes.

The '''TwinAIR project''' introduces technological solutions aimed at enhancing air quality across a broad spectrum of indoor living contexts. The project's primary objective is to investigate the adverse effects of indoor air pollutants on occupants' health, fostering community awareness and informing policy-making for public health improvement. The project's multifaceted goals include establishing a framework for identifying health hazards related to indoor air pollution sources, assessing factors influencing indoor and outdoor air quality, promoting the adoption of integrated modular technologies, detecting synergistic effects of various exposures, evaluating associated health effects, determining optimal IAQ conditions, developing intelligent tools for air quality management, and contributing to open research data initiatives. Through these efforts, TwinAIR aims to comprehensively address IAQ challenges and their impact on human health, ultimately contributing to healthier indoor environments and informed policy decisions.

'''EDIAQI, short for "Evidence Driven Air Quality Improvement,''' seeks to uncover the sources, exposure pathways, and health impacts associated with indoor air pollution. With a focus on European cities, the EDIAQI project addresses the challenges posed by indoor air pollution through a comprehensive approach that includes both short-term, high-intensity measurements and long-term, large-scale monitoring. Recognising the heightened exposure to indoor pollutants and the increased risk of early-life respiratory diseases, EDIAQI aims to bridge the knowledge gap in IAQ by pursuing the following objectives:

'''•''' Validating user-friendly indoor air quality monitoring solutions.

'''•''' Creating a Europe-wide knowledge base for indoor air pollutants.

'''•''' Providing guidelines for improving IAQ.

'''•''' Ensuring data access to stakeholders.

'''•''' Supporting policy-making with evidence.

'''•''' Supporting the European Green Deal's Zero-Pollution Action Plan.

Ultimately, EDIAQI's multifaceted efforts are geared towards enhancing our understanding of IAQ, guiding regulatory measures, and promoting healthier indoor environments.

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

Ñ. Overview of European Union Ambient Air Quality Standards

2023-09-20T07:03:47Z

USEV: Blanked the page

P. Overview of European Union Ambient Air Quality Standards

2023-09-20T07:02:41Z

USEV: Created page with "Assessing and managing the health risks associated with outdoor air pollution within the European Union is a multifaceted endeavour. It necessitates the consideration of an array of pollutants, varying exposure levels, and potential health consequences. Moreover, the intricate interplay of cultural habits, lifestyles, and climate, along with the varying susceptibility of different segments of the population, adds complexity to the task. Vulnerable groups such as children..."

Assessing and managing the health risks associated with outdoor air pollution within the European Union is a multifaceted endeavour. It necessitates the consideration of an array of pollutants, varying exposure levels, and potential health consequences. Moreover, the intricate interplay of cultural habits, lifestyles, and climate, along with the varying susceptibility of different segments of the population, adds complexity to the task. Vulnerable groups such as children, pregnant women, and the elderly are particularly pertinent in this context133.

Within the European Union, a framework for ambient air quality standards and objectives has been established. These standards, designed to safeguard public health and the environment, encompass different periods of time in recognition of the diverse health impacts associated with various pollutants and exposure durations, in line with World Health Organisation guidelines. Underpinning European law is the concept of binding limit values, which take effect upon enactment and are subject to defined permitted exceedances. On the other hand, target values reflect an obligation to implement measures that lead to their attainment without imposing disproportionate costs, resulting in a comparatively less stringent framework134.

Notably, Directive 2008/50/EC introduces a pivotal component in the form of PM2.5 objectives. These objectives are specifically aimed at regulating the exposure of the population to fine particulate matter, denoted as PM2.5. Operating at the national level, these objectives are formulated using an Average Exposure Indicator (AEI), which involves assessing the 3-year running annual mean PM2.5 concentration across chosen monitoring stations within agglomerations and larger urban areas. This strategic approach, set in urban background locations, optimally evaluates the PM2.5 exposure experienced by the general population135.

''' Table 3'''
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Pollutant'''
|'''Concentration'''
|'''Averaging period'''
|'''Legal nature'''
|'''Permitted exceedences each year'''
|-
|Fine particles (PM2.5)
|25 µg/m
|1 year
|Target value to be met as of 1.1.2010

Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2015
|n/a
|-
|Fine particles (PM2.5)
|20 µg/m3
|1 year
|Stage 2 limit value to be met as of 1.1.2020[1]
|n/a
|-
|Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
|350 µg/m3
|1 hour
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005
|24
|-
|Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
|125 µg/m3
|24 hours
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005
|3
|-
|Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
|200 µg/m3
|1 hour
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2010
|18
|-
|Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
|40 µg/m3
|1 year
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2010[2]
|n/a
|-
|Particulate matter (PM10)
|50 µg/m3
|24 hours
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005[3]
|35
|-
|Particulate matter (PM10)
|40 µg/m3
|1 year
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005[4]
|n/a
|-
|Lead (Pb)
|0.5 µg/m3
|1 year
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005 (or 1.1.2010 in the immediate vicinity of specific, notified industrial sources; and a 1.0 µg/m3 limit value applied from 1.1.2005 to 31.12.2009)
|n/a
|-
|Carbon monoxide (CO)
|10 mg/m3
|Maximum daily 8 hour mean
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005
|n/a
|-
|Benzene
|5 µg/m3
|1 year
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2010[5]
|n/a
|-
|Ozone
|120 µg/m3
|Maximum daily 8 hour mean
|Target value to be met as of 1.1.2010
|25 days averaged over 3 years
|-
|Arsenic (As)
|6 ng/m3
|1 year
|Target value to be met as of 31.12.2012
|n/a
|-
|Cadmium (Cd)
|5 ng/m3
|1 year
|Target value to be met as of 31.12.2012
|n/a
|-
|Nickel (Ni)
|20 ng/m3
|1 year
|Target value to be met as of 31.12.2012
|n/a
|-
|Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

|1 ng/m3

(expressed as concentration of Benzo(a)pyrene)
|1 year
|Target value to be met as of 31.12.2012
|n/a
|}
----[1] Stage 2: indicative limit value as referred to in Directive 2008/50/EU.

[2] Under Directive 2008/50/EU, the Member State could apply for an extension of up to five years (i.e. maximum up to 2015) in a specific zone. The request is subject to an assessment by the Commission. In such cases within the time extension period the limit value applies at the level of the limit value + maximum margin of tolerance ( 48 µg/m3 for annual NO2 limit value).

[3] Under Directive 2008/50/EU, the Member State was able to apply for an extension until three years after the date of entry into force of the new Directive (i.e. May 2011) in a specific zone. The request was subject to assessment by the Commission. In such cases within the time extension period the limit value applies at the level of the limit value + maximum margin of tolerance (35 days at 75µg/m3 for daily PM10 limit value, 48 µg/m3 for annual Pm10 limit value).

[4] Under Directive 2008/50/EU, the Member State was able to apply for an extension until three years after the date of entry into force of the new Directive (i.e. May 2011) in a specific zone. The request was subject to assessment by the Commission. In such cases within the time extension period the limit value applies at the level of the limit value + maximum margin of tolerance (35 days at 75µg/m3 for daily PM10 limit value, 48 µg/m3 for annual Pm10 limit value).

[5] Under Directive 2008/50/EU, the Member State was able to apply for an extension until three years after the date of entry into force of the new Directive (i.e. May 2011) in a specific zone. The request was subject to assessment by the Commission. In such cases within the time extension period the limit value applies at the level of the limit value + maximum margin of tolerance (35 days at 75µg/m3 for daily PM10 limit value, 48 µg/m3 for annual Pm10 limit value).

'''Table 4'''
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Title'''
|'''Metric'''
|'''Averaging Period'''
|'''Legal Nature'''
|'''Permitted exceedences each year'''
|-
|PM2.5

Exposure concentration obligation

|20 µg/m3 (AEI)
|Based on 3 year average
|Legally binding in 2015 (years 2013,2014,2015)
|n/a
|-
|PM2.5

Exposure reduction target

|Percentage reduction[[Ñ. Overview of European Union Ambient Air Quality Standards#%20ftn1|[1]]]

+ all measures to reach 18 µg/m3

(AEI)
|Based on 3 year average
|Reduction to be attained where possible in 2020, determined on the basis of the value of exposure indicator in 2010
|n/a
|}
----[[Ñ. Overview of European Union Ambient Air Quality Standards#%20ftnref1|[1]]] Depending on the value of AEI in 2010, a percentage reduction requirement ( 0,10,15, or 20%) is set in the Directive. If AEI in 2010 is assessed to be over 22 µg/m3, all appropriate measures need to be taken to achieve 18 µg/m3 by 2020.

'''References '''

133 Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0

134 The European Commission, “The EU Air Standards,” the European Commission, 2020. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air/air-quality/eu-air-quality-standards_en

135 The European Commission, “The EU Air Standards,” the European Commission, 2020. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air/air-quality/eu-air-quality-standards_en

[[Category:IAQ Policy Landscape|P._Overview_of_European_Union_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:P._Overview_of_European_Union_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards}}

Ñ. Overview of European Union Ambient Air Quality Standards

2023-09-20T06:58:46Z

USEV:

Assessing and managing the health risks associated with outdoor air pollution within the European Union is a multifaceted endeavour. It necessitates the consideration of an array of pollutants, varying exposure levels, and potential health consequences. Moreover, the intricate interplay of cultural habits, lifestyles, and climate, along with the varying susceptibility of different segments of the population, adds complexity to the task. Vulnerable groups such as children, pregnant women, and the elderly are particularly pertinent in this context133.

Within the European Union, a framework for ambient air quality standards and objectives has been established. These standards, designed to safeguard public health and the environment, encompass different periods of time in recognition of the diverse health impacts associated with various pollutants and exposure durations, in line with World Health Organisation guidelines. Underpinning European law is the concept of binding limit values, which take effect upon enactment and are subject to defined permitted exceedances. On the other hand, target values reflect an obligation to implement measures that lead to their attainment without imposing disproportionate costs, resulting in a comparatively less stringent framework134.

Notably, Directive 2008/50/EC introduces a pivotal component in the form of PM2.5 objectives. These objectives are specifically aimed at regulating the exposure of the population to fine particulate matter, denoted as PM2.5. Operating at the national level, these objectives are formulated using an Average Exposure Indicator (AEI), which involves assessing the 3-year running annual mean PM2.5 concentration across chosen monitoring stations within agglomerations and larger urban areas. This strategic approach, set in urban background locations, optimally evaluates the PM2.5 exposure experienced by the general population135.

''' Table 3'''
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Pollutant'''
|'''Concentration'''
|'''Averaging period'''
|'''Legal nature'''
|'''Permitted exceedences each year'''
|-
|Fine particles (PM2.5)
|25 µg/m
|1 year
|Target value to be met as of 1.1.2010

Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2015
|n/a
|-
|Fine particles (PM2.5)
|20 µg/m3
|1 year
|Stage 2 limit value to be met as of 1.1.2020[1]
|n/a
|-
|Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
|350 µg/m3
|1 hour
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005
|24
|-
|Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
|125 µg/m3
|24 hours
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005
|3
|-
|Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
|200 µg/m3
|1 hour
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2010
|18
|-
|Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
|40 µg/m3
|1 year
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2010[2]
|n/a
|-
|Particulate matter (PM10)
|50 µg/m3
|24 hours
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005[3]
|35
|-
|Particulate matter (PM10)
|40 µg/m3
|1 year
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005[4]
|n/a
|-
|Lead (Pb)
|0.5 µg/m3
|1 year
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005 (or 1.1.2010 in the immediate vicinity of specific, notified industrial sources; and a 1.0 µg/m3 limit value applied from 1.1.2005 to 31.12.2009)
|n/a
|-
|Carbon monoxide (CO)
|10 mg/m3
|Maximum daily 8 hour mean
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005
|n/a
|-
|Benzene
|5 µg/m3
|1 year
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2010[5]
|n/a
|-
|Ozone
|120 µg/m3
|Maximum daily 8 hour mean
|Target value to be met as of 1.1.2010
|25 days averaged over 3 years
|-
|Arsenic (As)
|6 ng/m3
|1 year
|Target value to be met as of 31.12.2012
|n/a
|-
|Cadmium (Cd)
|5 ng/m3
|1 year
|Target value to be met as of 31.12.2012
|n/a
|-
|Nickel (Ni)
|20 ng/m3
|1 year
|Target value to be met as of 31.12.2012
|n/a
|-
|Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons


|1 ng/m3

(expressed as concentration of Benzo(a)pyrene)
|1 year
|Target value to be met as of 31.12.2012
|n/a
|}
----[1] Stage 2: indicative limit value as referred to in Directive 2008/50/EU.

[2] Under Directive 2008/50/EU, the Member State could apply for an extension of up to five years (i.e. maximum up to 2015) in a specific zone. The request is subject to an assessment by the Commission. In such cases within the time extension period the limit value applies at the level of the limit value + maximum margin of tolerance ( 48 µg/m3 for annual NO2 limit value).

[3] Under Directive 2008/50/EU, the Member State was able to apply for an extension until three years after the date of entry into force of the new Directive (i.e. May 2011) in a specific zone. The request was subject to assessment by the Commission. In such cases within the time extension period the limit value applies at the level of the limit value + maximum margin of tolerance (35 days at 75µg/m3 for daily PM10 limit value, 48 µg/m3 for annual Pm10 limit value).

[4] Under Directive 2008/50/EU, the Member State was able to apply for an extension until three years after the date of entry into force of the new Directive (i.e. May 2011) in a specific zone. The request was subject to assessment by the Commission. In such cases within the time extension period the limit value applies at the level of the limit value + maximum margin of tolerance (35 days at 75µg/m3 for daily PM10 limit value, 48 µg/m3 for annual Pm10 limit value).

[5] Under Directive 2008/50/EU, the Member State was able to apply for an extension until three years after the date of entry into force of the new Directive (i.e. May 2011) in a specific zone. The request was subject to assessment by the Commission. In such cases within the time extension period the limit value applies at the level of the limit value + maximum margin of tolerance (35 days at 75µg/m3 for daily PM10 limit value, 48 µg/m3 for annual Pm10 limit value).

'''Table 4'''
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Title'''
|'''Metric'''
|'''Averaging Period'''
|'''Legal Nature'''
|'''Permitted exceedences each year'''
|-
|PM2.5

Exposure concentration obligation


|20 µg/m3 (AEI)
|Based on 3 year average
|Legally binding in 2015 (years 2013,2014,2015)
|n/a
|-
|PM2.5

Exposure reduction target


|Percentage reduction[[Ñ. Overview of European Union Ambient Air Quality Standards#%20ftn1|[1]]]

+ all measures to reach 18 µg/m3

(AEI)
|Based on 3 year average
|Reduction to be attained where possible in 2020, determined on the basis of the value of exposure indicator in 2010
|n/a
|}
----[[Ñ. Overview of European Union Ambient Air Quality Standards#%20ftnref1|[1]]] Depending on the value of AEI in 2010, a percentage reduction requirement ( 0,10,15, or 20%) is set in the Directive. If AEI in 2010 is assessed to be over 22 µg/m3, all appropriate measures need to be taken to achieve 18 µg/m3 by 2020.

'''References '''

133 Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0

134 The European Commission, “The EU Air Standards,” the European Commission, 2020. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air/air-quality/eu-air-quality-standards_en

135 The European Commission, “The EU Air Standards,” the European Commission, 2020. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air/air-quality/eu-air-quality-standards_en

[[Category:IAQ Policy Landscape|P._Overview_of_European_Union_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:P._Overview_of_European_Union_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards}}

O. Horizon Europe Projects

2023-09-20T06:56:08Z

USEV: Created page with "The European Union has begun to place emphasis on filling knowledge and policy gaps vis-a-vis IAQ, particularly considering the increased times European citizen spent indoors in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. This epitomised in seven projects funded via Horizon Europe programme under the topic 'Indoor air quality and health’: InChildHealth, INQUIRE, K-HEALTHinAIR, LEARN, SynAir-G, and TwinAIR, alongside EDIAQI. The InChildHealth project integrates health, environ..."

The European Union has begun to place emphasis on filling knowledge and policy gaps vis-a-vis IAQ, particularly considering the increased times European citizen spent indoors in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. This epitomised in seven projects funded via Horizon Europe programme under the topic 'Indoor air quality and health’: InChildHealth, INQUIRE, K-HEALTHinAIR, LEARN, SynAir-G, and TwinAIR, alongside EDIAQI.

The InChildHealth project integrates health, environmental, technical, and social sciences to assess IAQ and its impact on school children. It examines chemicals, particles, microorganisms, and physical factors in various spaces. By evaluating IAQ effects on health, including respiratory issues and allergies, through epidemiological studies and interventions in European cities, the project aims to enhance understanding of IAQ using novel approaches like cytotoxicity testing. The consortium covers diverse European countries and aims to create an integrated risk assessment tool for pollutants, develop user-friendly monitoring technology, and disseminate findings as guidelines to improve IAQ management in schools.

The INQUIRE project aims to enhance IAQ and protect the health of European citizens, especially children. Focused on infants and young children up to 5 years old, the project conducts research to identify and reduce hazardous chemical and biological factors that affect IAQ in homes. Through innovative and non-invasive sampling methods, over 200 homes in eight countries are monitored for a month to understand IAQ determinants. The project's multidisciplinary approach combines chemical, biological, and toxicity analyses to identify sources and prioritise pollutants. Novel technologies and strategies for improving IAQ are tested, leading to evidence-based recommendations and potential policy strategies.

The Knowledge for improving indoor air quality and health (K-HEALTHinAIR) project focuses on assessing the effects of IAQ on health through extensive monitoring of chemical and biological pollutants in representative indoor environments across the EU. The project combines theoretical analysis, clinical trials, and tests to understand pollutant sources, interactions, and correlations with health issues. Affordable IAQ measurements and tools will be developed to enhance monitoring and mitigation efforts. The project aims to provide structured knowledge in an accessible format for public authorities, policymakers, and citizens, promoting informed decision-making and potentially influencing new IAQ standards. K-HEALTHinAIR seeks comprehensive engagement to ensure its results have a significant impact.

The LEARN project aims to assess IAQ in European schools and its effects on children's health and cognition. The project focuses on developing novel sensors, advanced biosensors, and effective remediation strategies to improve IAQ and children's well-being. Key elements include evaluating IAQ and exposure levels in schools across different countries, measuring concentrations of volatile organic compounds and ultrafine particles, assessing potential toxicity of indoor air pollutants, and creating a strategy for air remediation using advanced filtration systems and air purifiers.

The SynAir-G project addresses the rising complexity of indoor air pollutants and their potential synergistic effects on human health, particularly impacting susceptible groups like children, asthma and allergy sufferers, and those from disadvantaged backgrounds. With a focus on school environments, the project aims to uncover and quantify synergistic interactions between pollutants, develop novel sensors, and eco-friendly air-purifying devices, and provide accessible health outcome data through gamified applications and prospective monitoring. This effort will not only enhance IAQ assessment but also contribute to regulatory frameworks and interventions for improved health outcomes.

The TwinAIR project introduces technological solutions aimed at enhancing air quality across a broad spectrum of indoor living contexts. The project's primary objective is to investigate the adverse effects of indoor air pollutants on occupants' health, fostering community awareness and informing policy-making for public health improvement. The project's multifaceted goals include establishing a framework for identifying health hazards related to indoor air pollution sources, assessing factors influencing indoor and outdoor air quality, promoting the adoption of integrated modular technologies, detecting synergistic effects of various exposures, evaluating associated health effects, determining optimal IAQ conditions, developing intelligent tools for air quality management, and contributing to open research data initiatives. Through these efforts, TwinAIR aims to comprehensively address IAQ challenges and their impact on human health, ultimately contributing to healthier indoor environments and informed policy decisions.

EDIAQI, short for "Evidence Driven Air Quality Improvement," seeks to uncover the sources, exposure pathways, and health impacts associated with indoor air pollution. With a focus on European cities, the EDIAQI project addresses the challenges posed by indoor air pollution through a comprehensive approach that includes both short-term, high-intensity measurements and long-term, large-scale monitoring. Recognising the heightened exposure to indoor pollutants and the increased risk of early-life respiratory diseases, EDIAQI aims to bridge the knowledge gap in IAQ by pursuing the following objectives:

• Validating user-friendly indoor air quality monitoring solutions.
• Creating a Europe-wide knowledge base for indoor air pollutants.
• Providing guidelines for improving IAQ.
• Ensuring data access to stakeholders.
• Supporting policy-making with evidence.
• Supporting the European Green Deal's Zero-Pollution Action Plan.

Ultimately, EDIAQI's multifaceted efforts are geared towards enhancing our understanding of IAQ, guiding regulatory measures, and promoting healthier indoor environments.

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

I. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021

2023-09-20T06:50:45Z

USEV:

The 2021 WHO air quality guidelines encompass a comprehensive framework applicable to both outdoor and indoor environments, covering various settings where people spend their time107. While these guidelines extend to numerous contexts, they do not address occupational settings due to unique exposure characteristics and risk reduction policies, along with potential differences in population susceptibility within the adult workforce108.

The primary objective of these updated global guidelines is to provide evidence-based quantitative recommendations for air quality management, offering long- or short-term concentration values for key air pollutants. Exceeding the air quality guideline levels is linked to significant public health risks. Although not legally binding standards, these guidelines equip World Health Organisation member states with an evidence-driven tool to shape legislation and policies, with the ultimate aim of reducing air pollutant levels and alleviating the substantial global health burden from air pollution exposure109.

''' Table 2: Recommended AQG levels and interim targets''' (Extracted from WHO IAQ Guidelines 2010)
{| class="wikitable"
| rowspan="2" |'''Pollutant'''
| rowspan="2" |'''Averaging time'''
| colspan="4" |'''Interim target'''
| rowspan="2" |'''AQG level'''
|-
|'''1'''
|'''2'''
|'''3'''
|'''4'''
|-
| rowspan="2" |PM2.5, µg/m3

|Annual
|35
|25
|15
|10
|5
|-
|24-hour[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftn1|[1]]]
|75
|50
|37.5
|25
|15
|-
| rowspan="2" |PM10, µg/m3
|Annual
|70
|50
|30
|20
|15
|-
|24-hour[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftn2|[2]]]
|150
|100
|75
|50
|45
|-
| rowspan="2" |O3, µg/m3
|Peak season[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftn3|[3]]]
|100
|70
|–
|–
|60
|-
|8-hour[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftn4|[4]]]
|160
|120
|–
|–
|100
|-
| rowspan="2" |NO2, µg/m3
|Annual
|40
|30
|20
|–
|10
|-
|24-hour[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftn5|[5]]]
|120
|50
|–
|–
|25
|-
|SO2, µg/m3
|24-hour[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftn6|[6]]]
|125
|50
|–
|–
|40
|-
|CO, mg/m3
|24-hour[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftn7|[7]]]
|7
|–
|–
|–
|4
|}
----[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftnref1|[1]]] 99th percentile (i.e. 3–4 exceedance days per year).

[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftnref2|[2]]] 99th percentile (i.e. 3–4 exceedance days per year).

[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftnref3|[3]]] Average of daily maximum 8-hour mean O3 concentration in the six consecutive months with the highest six-month running-average O3 concentration.

[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftnref4|[4]]] 99th percentile (i.e. 3–4 exceedance days per year).

[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftnref5|[5]]] 99th percentile (i.e. 3–4 exceedance days per year).

[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftnref6|[6]]] 99th percentile (i.e. 3–4 exceedance days per year).

[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftnref7|[7]]] 99th percentile (i.e. 3–4 exceedance days per year).

'''Table 2.1.''' Air quality guidelines for nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide (short averaging times) that were not re-evaluated and remain valid (WHO, 2021)
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Pollutant'''
|'''Averaging time'''
|'''Air quality guidelines that remain valid'''
|-
|NO2, µg/m3 1-hour 200
|1-hour
|200
|-
|SO2, µg/m3 10-minute 500
|10-minute
|500
|-
| rowspan="3" |CO, mg/m3

|8-hour
|10
|-
|1-hour
|35
|-
|15-minute
|100
|}

=== ''' References ''' ===

107 The World Health Organisation, “WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines,” the World Health Organisation, 2021. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/345334/9789240034433-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

108 The World Health Organisation, “WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines,” the World Health Organisation, 2021. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/345334/9789240034433-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

109 The World Health Organisation, “WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines,” the World Health Organisation, 2021. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/345334/9789240034433-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

Ñ. Overview of European Union Ambient Air Quality Standards

2023-09-19T12:53:11Z

USEV:

Assessing and managing the health risks associated with outdoor air pollution within the European Union is a multifaceted endeavour. It necessitates the consideration of an array of pollutants, varying exposure levels, and potential health consequences. Moreover, the intricate interplay of cultural habits, lifestyles, and climate, along with the varying susceptibility of different segments of the population, adds complexity to the task. Vulnerable groups such as children, pregnant women, and the elderly are particularly pertinent in this context133.

Within the European Union, a framework for ambient air quality standards and objectives has been established. These standards, designed to safeguard public health and the environment, encompass different periods of time in recognition of the diverse health impacts associated with various pollutants and exposure durations, in line with World Health Organisation guidelines. Underpinning European law is the concept of binding limit values, which take effect upon enactment and are subject to defined permitted exceedances. On the other hand, target values reflect an obligation to implement measures that lead to their attainment without imposing disproportionate costs, resulting in a comparatively less stringent framework134.

Notably, Directive 2008/50/EC introduces a pivotal component in the form of PM2.5 objectives. These objectives are specifically aimed at regulating the exposure of the population to fine particulate matter, denoted as PM2.5. Operating at the national level, these objectives are formulated using an Average Exposure Indicator (AEI), which involves assessing the 3-year running annual mean PM2.5 concentration across chosen monitoring stations within agglomerations and larger urban areas. This strategic approach, set in urban background locations, optimally evaluates the PM2.5 exposure experienced by the general population135.

''' Table 3'''
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Pollutant'''
|'''Concentration'''
|'''Averaging period'''
|'''Legal nature'''
|'''Permitted exceedences each year'''
|-
|Fine particles (PM2.5)
|25 µg/m
|1 year
|Target value to be met as of 1.1.2010

Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2015
|n/a
|-
|Fine particles (PM2.5)
|20 µg/m3
|1 year
|Stage 2 limit value to be met as of 1.1.2020[1]
|n/a
|-
|Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
|350 µg/m3
|1 hour
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005
|24
|-
|Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
|125 µg/m3
|24 hours
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005
|3
|-
|Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
|200 µg/m3
|1 hour
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2010
|18
|-
|Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
|40 µg/m3
|1 year
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2010[2]
|n/a
|-
|Particulate matter (PM10)
|50 µg/m3
|24 hours
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005[3]
|35
|-
|Particulate matter (PM10)
|40 µg/m3
|1 year
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005[4]
|n/a
|-
|Lead (Pb)
|0.5 µg/m3
|1 year
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005 (or 1.1.2010 in the immediate vicinity of specific, notified industrial sources; and a 1.0 µg/m3 limit value applied from 1.1.2005 to 31.12.2009)
|n/a
|-
|Carbon monoxide (CO)
|10 mg/m3
|Maximum daily 8 hour mean
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005
|n/a
|-
|Benzene
|5 µg/m3
|1 year
|Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2010[5]
|n/a
|-
|Ozone
|120 µg/m3
|Maximum daily 8 hour mean
|Target value to be met as of 1.1.2010
|25 days averaged over 3 years
|-
|Arsenic (As)
|6 ng/m3
|1 year
|Target value to be met as of 31.12.2012
|n/a
|-
|Cadmium (Cd)
|5 ng/m3
|1 year
|Target value to be met as of 31.12.2012
|n/a
|-
|Nickel (Ni)
|20 ng/m3
|1 year
|Target value to be met as of 31.12.2012
|n/a
|-
|Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons


|1 ng/m3

(expressed as concentration of Benzo(a)pyrene)
|1 year
|Target value to be met as of 31.12.2012
|n/a
|}
----[1] Stage 2: indicative limit value as referred to in Directive 2008/50/EU.

[2] Under Directive 2008/50/EU, the Member State could apply for an extension of up to five years (i.e. maximum up to 2015) in a specific zone. The request is subject to an assessment by the Commission. In such cases within the time extension period the limit value applies at the level of the limit value + maximum margin of tolerance ( 48 µg/m3 for annual NO2 limit value).

[3] Under Directive 2008/50/EU, the Member State was able to apply for an extension until three years after the date of entry into force of the new Directive (i.e. May 2011) in a specific zone. The request was subject to assessment by the Commission. In such cases within the time extension period the limit value applies at the level of the limit value + maximum margin of tolerance (35 days at 75µg/m3 for daily PM10 limit value, 48 µg/m3 for annual Pm10 limit value).

[4] Under Directive 2008/50/EU, the Member State was able to apply for an extension until three years after the date of entry into force of the new Directive (i.e. May 2011) in a specific zone. The request was subject to assessment by the Commission. In such cases within the time extension period the limit value applies at the level of the limit value + maximum margin of tolerance (35 days at 75µg/m3 for daily PM10 limit value, 48 µg/m3 for annual Pm10 limit value).

[5] Under Directive 2008/50/EU, the Member State was able to apply for an extension until three years after the date of entry into force of the new Directive (i.e. May 2011) in a specific zone. The request was subject to assessment by the Commission. In such cases within the time extension period the limit value applies at the level of the limit value + maximum margin of tolerance (35 days at 75µg/m3 for daily PM10 limit value, 48 µg/m3 for annual Pm10 limit value).

'''Table 4'''
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Title'''
|'''Metric'''
|'''Averaging Period'''
|'''Legal Nature'''
|'''Permitted exceedences each year'''
|-
|PM2.5

Exposure concentration obligation


|20 µg/m3 (AEI)
|Based on 3 year average
|Legally binding in 2015 (years 2013,2014,2015)
|n/a
|-
|PM2.5

Exposure reduction target


|Percentage reduction[[Ñ. Overview of European Union Ambient Air Quality Standards#%20ftn1|[1]]]

+ all measures to reach 18 µg/m3

(AEI)
|Based on 3 year average
|Reduction to be attained where possible in 2020, determined on the basis of the value of exposure indicator in 2010
|n/a
|}
----[[Ñ. Overview of European Union Ambient Air Quality Standards#%20ftnref1|[1]]] Depending on the value of AEI in 2010, a percentage reduction requirement ( 0,10,15, or 20%) is set in the Directive. If AEI in 2010 is assessed to be over 22 µg/m3, all appropriate measures need to be taken to achieve 18 µg/m3 by 2020.

'''References '''

133 Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0

134 The European Commission, “The EU Air Standards,” the European Commission, 2020. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air/air-quality/eu-air-quality-standards_en

135 The European Commission, “The EU Air Standards,” the European Commission, 2020. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air/air-quality/eu-air-quality-standards_en

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

Ñ. Overview of European Union Ambient Air Quality Standards

2023-09-19T12:17:25Z

N. EU's Zero Pollution Action Plan and its Focus on Air Quality

2023-09-19T12:08:14Z

USEV: Created page with "The '''Zero Pollution Action Plan''' is a cornerstone initiative of the European Green Deal, aimed at comprehensively addressing pollution across different domains. Pollution, a significant threat to both health and the environment, has spurred the European Union to lead global efforts to address it. This plan encompasses a range of key objectives, primarily directed towards water, air, and soil pollution, with the overarching vision of achieving a pollution-free environ..."

The '''Zero Pollution Action Plan''' is a cornerstone initiative of the European Green Deal, aimed at comprehensively addressing pollution across different domains. Pollution, a significant threat to both health and the environment, has spurred the European Union to lead global efforts to address it. This plan encompasses a range of key objectives, primarily directed towards water, air, and soil pollution, with the overarching vision of achieving a pollution-free environment by 2050.

While the action plan is broad in scope, it explicitly underscores the significance of tackling air pollution as a fundamental concern130. Among its pivotal objectives, the plan seeks to reduce health impacts caused by air pollution by more than 55%, resulting in a considerable decrease in premature deaths attributed to particulate matter by 2030131. Additionally, the plan aims to reduce the extent of European ecosystems facing the threat of air pollution-related biodiversity loss by 25%132.

The Zero Pollution Action Plan holds the potential to transform the European Union’s approach to pollution prevention, fostering a greener, digitally advanced, and economically vibrant Europe. It not only seeks to integrate pollution prevention across various policies but also endeavours to identify and address potential gaps in relevant legislation. Despite its clear focus on improving air quality as part of its holistic vision for pollution reduction, the plan does not currently encompass a specific, European Union wide legislative framework for IAQ. Notably, the importance of addressing indoor air pollution has been acknowledged in recent European Commission communications, indicating a growing awareness of the interconnectedness between indoor and outdoor air quality and the need for broader policy considerations.

'''Clean Air Policy within the Zero Pollution Action Plan'''

The '''Clean Air Policy''' component of the Zero Pollution Action Plan is a vital pillar in the European Union's determined efforts to enhance ambient air quality and address air pollution, thereby safeguarding both the environment and human health. With a holistic approach towards achieving the EU's overarching vision of zero pollution by 2050, the clean air policy is structured around three key pillars: establishing stringent ambient air quality standards, reducing air pollution emissions, and implementing emissions standards for critical pollution sources.

A cornerstone of this policy's aspirations is the European Union’s target to achieve a minimum 55% reduction in premature deaths attributed to particulate matter by 2030, underscoring the urgency of the issue. At its core, the Clean Air Policy not only seeks to directly improve public health and diminish instances of illness associated with air pollution but also endeavours to alleviate the strain air pollution places on ecosystems and biodiversity. By merging these objectives with a comprehensive approach to emissions reduction, the Clean Air Policy within the Zero Pollution Action Plan emerges as a crucial mechanism in the European Union’s broader drive towards a cleaner, healthier, and more sustainable environment.

'''European Commission Communication: Towards Zero Pollution for Air, Water and Soil'''

European Commission recognises the complex web of factors affecting IAQ and acknowledges that existing European Union policies have touched upon various determinants, encompassing aspects from ambient air to construction materials, consumer products, and occupational safety and health regulations. However, a comprehensive and integrated approach addressing IAQ remains absent within the European Union Legislative framework. Notably, the COVID-19 pandemic's impact has placed a renewed emphasis on the critical need for maintaining clean indoor air environments, especially as building insulation advancements heighten the significance of IAQ. School buildings, in particular, are emphasised as deserving special attention, due to the particular health and well-being vulnerability of children to poor IAQ.

A recent communication from the European Commission concerning '''Zero Pollution for Air Water and Soil''' underlined policy and knowledge gaps in terms of IAQ while also highlight actions the European Commission has undertaken. These include flagship actions as part of its Zero Pollution Action Plan. These initiatives aim to holistically address urban pollution and foster greener cities. Within this context, the Commission intends to synergise various strategies, such as the Horizon Europe Mission for Climate Neutral and Smart Cities, the Covenant of Mayors, and the New European Bauhaus initiative, to pinpoint key requirements for urban innovation and greening, encompassing indoor air pollution prevention. By 2024, the European Commission also intends to commend cities making significant strides in reducing air, water, and soil pollution, thereby fostering tailored pollution mitigation strategies in local contexts.

The European Commission has set forth a concrete plan to assess pathways and policy options to improve IAQ, coupled with the proposal of relevant legislative measures. With a focus on key determinants and pollution sources, this endeavour strives to augment public awareness, diminish risks, and culminate in a more comprehensive, coherent approach to tackling IAQ challenges.

=== ''' References ''' ===

130 The European Commission Joint Research Centre, “Zero Pollution Report 2022”, Publications Office of the European Union, 2022. Available online: https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu/scientific-activities-z/zero-pollution-outlook-2022_en

131 The European Commission, “Air”, 2023. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air_en

132 The European Commission Joint Research Centre, “Zero Pollution Report 2022”, Publications Office of the European Union, 2022. Available online: https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu/scientific-activities-z/zero-pollution-outlook-2022_en

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

M. European Parliament's Renewed Focus on Indoor Air Quality

2023-09-19T11:51:27Z

USEV: Created page with "In a significant '''Resolution of the European Parliament (A9-0037/2021)''', a renewed emphasis has been placed on the importance of IAQ. While the EU's framework for outdoor air quality policy is well-structured, the resolution acknowledges the fragmented nature of existing legislation covering IAQ. This recognition underlines the need for a more comprehensive European policy approach to air pollution, ensuring coherency between ambient air quality, health and safety at..."

In a significant '''Resolution of the European Parliament (A9-0037/2021)''', a renewed emphasis has been placed on the importance of IAQ. While the EU's framework for outdoor air quality policy is well-structured, the resolution acknowledges the fragmented nature of existing legislation covering IAQ. This recognition underlines the need for a more comprehensive European policy approach to air pollution, ensuring coherency between ambient air quality, health and safety at workplaces, chemical regulations, and building legislations, with the goal of safeguarding the well-being of workers and the general public from potentially hazardous substances present in indoor environments.

The European Parliament's resolution also sheds light on the evident knowledge and policy gaps in IAQ. Despite the reduction in emissions of particulate matter (PM10), data from the European Environment Agency reveals that a considerable segment of the urban population across Europe remains exposed to air pollution levels exceeding the World Health Organisation guideline values. This exposure is not limited to outdoor pollutants, as the resolution acknowledges the potential consequences of indoor air pollution, urging the European Commission to explore legislative remedies for all relevant sources of indoor air pollution.

Furthermore, the resolution highlights the socio-economic implications of this pollution, emphasising that marginalised socio-economic groups often experience heightened exposure due to proximity to pollution sources both outdoors, such as traffic and industrial areas, and indoors, like inefficient heating methods. In addressing these challenges, the resolution urges the European Commission to consider new indicators for air quality indices, reflecting factors such as population density around monitoring sites, to comprehensively assess the exposure of the general population to pollutants.

As part of its forward-looking recommendations, the European Parliament calls for the Commission to independently regulate IAQ or integrate it within sustainable building legislation, particularly focusing on confined spaces in public and commercial real estate. This move underscores the European Parliament's recognition of the need for comprehensive and tailored policies to address the diverse sources and implications of indoor air pollution, while aligning IAQ efforts with broader environmental and public health goals.

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

L. EU Ambient Air Quality Directives

2023-09-19T11:39:17Z

USEV: Created page with "The European Union's Ambient Air Quality Directives address outdoor air quality within the troposphere, excluding indoor environments and workplaces subject to health and safety at work regulations. These directives, implemented since the 1980s, set air quality standards in the European Union for 12 pollutants, including sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5), ozone, benzene, lead, carbon monoxide, arsenic, cadmium, nickel, and benzo(a)pyrene..."

The European Union's Ambient Air Quality Directives address outdoor air quality within the troposphere, excluding indoor environments and workplaces subject to health and safety at work regulations. These directives, implemented since the 1980s, set air quality standards in the European Union for 12 pollutants, including sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5), ozone, benzene, lead, carbon monoxide, arsenic, cadmium, nickel, and benzo(a)pyrene (RL9). The core objectives of these directives aim to avoid, prevent, or reduce harmful effects on human health and the environment, with a focus on providing safe and healthy outdoor air.

The EU proposed revisions to the Ambient Air Quality Directives in 2022, aligning air quality standards with World Health Organisation recommendations, and aiming to achieve zero pollution for air by 2050. The revisions involve regular reviews of air quality standards, enhanced legal clarity, and support for local authorities in achieving cleaner air. The proposal is designed to provide greater clarity, access to justice, and better public information on air quality, alongside strengthening air quality monitoring and modelling efforts. While these directives have significantly improved outdoor air quality, they specifically pertain to outdoor air quality and not IAQ126, although the Zero Pollution Action Plan does allude to IAQ.

Despite extensive policies, the European Union lacks a comprehensive European level legislative framework specifically addressing IAQ127. Recognising the need for a more holistic approach to air pollution, there is a call for coherent and mutually reinforcing policies, ensuring health, safety, chemical, and building regulations are effectively aligned128. While these directives contribute significantly to outdoor air quality improvement, they remain separate from any EU-wide initiatives addressing IAQ challenges.

'''Timeline of Ambient Air Quality Directives'''

• Directive 2004/107/EC relating to arsenic, cadmium, mercury, nickel and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air.

• Directive 2008/50/EC on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe.

• 2011/850/EU: Commission Implementing Decision of 12 December 2011 laying down rules for Directives 2004/107/EC and 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council as regards the reciprocal exchange of information and reporting on ambient air quality.

• Commission Directive (EU) 2015/1480 amending several annexes to Directives 2004/107/EC and 2008/50/EC.

'''EU Ambient Air Quality Directive Revision (2022)'''

On 26 October 2022, as part of the European Green Deal, the Commission proposed a revision of the Ambient Air Quality Directives, which focuses exclusively on outdoor air quality standards. This revision aligns air quality standards more closely with the recommendations of the World Health Organization, including a reduction by over half in the annual limit value for fine particulate matter (PM2.5) (RL9). It's important to note that, similar to the existing Ambient Air Quality Directives, this revision specifically addresses outdoor air quality and does not encompass indoor air quality regulations. The proposal sets the EU on a path to achieve zero air pollution by 2050 and includes provisions for regular air quality standard reviews based on the latest scientific evidence. The revision also enhances the legal framework for access to justice, damage redress, penalties, and public information related to air quality. It aims to better support local authorities by strengthening air quality monitoring, modelling, and plans, while streamlining and simplifying the directives129. It's worth mentioning that while this revision doesn't cover indoor air quality directly, the broader Zero Pollution Action Plan alludes to the significance of indoor air quality considerations.

=== ''' References ''' ===

126 The European Commission, “Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions Empty: Pathway to a Healthy Planet for All: EU Action Plan: Towards Zero Pollution for Air, Water and Soil,” the European Commission, 12 May 2021. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52021DC0400&qid=1623311742827

127 European Parliament resolution of 25 March 2021 on the implementation of the Ambient Air Quality Directives: Directive 2004/107/EC and Directive 2008/50/EC (2020/2091(INI)). Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air/air-quality/revision-ambient-air-quality-directives_en

128 European Parliament resolution of 25 March 2021 on the implementation of the Ambient Air Quality Directives: Directive 2004/107/EC and Directive 2008/50/EC (2020/2091(INI)). Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air/air-quality/revision-ambient-air-quality-directives_en

129 The European Commission, “Revision of the Air Quality Directive,” European Commission, 26 October 2022. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air/air-quality/revision-ambient-air-quality-directives_en

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

K. EU Legislative Framework on Indoor Air Quality

2023-09-19T11:25:31Z

USEV: Created page with "IAQ is recognised as a critical determinant of health by the World Health Organization, highlighting the potential health risks from indoor pollutants121. However, while there are comprehensive regulations for outdoor air quality, there is no specific European Union directive exclusively addressing IAQ (RL20). Pre-legislative initiatives, research, standards, and guidelines have been introduced, but a unified policy on IAQ is yet to be established in the European Union...."

IAQ is recognised as a critical determinant of health by the World Health Organization, highlighting the potential health risks from indoor pollutants121. However, while there are comprehensive regulations for outdoor air quality, there is no specific European Union directive exclusively addressing IAQ (RL20). Pre-legislative initiatives, research, standards, and guidelines have been introduced, but a unified policy on IAQ is yet to be established in the European Union.

Initiatives like the European Collaborative Action have studied IAQ's impact on human activities, but a cohesive approach remains elusive. Despite the absence of an integrated IAQ policy, the Zero Pollution Action Plan, European Parliament resolutions, and European Commission communications emphasise the importance of considering IAQ alongside outdoor air quality. Furthermore, projects like the Evidence Drive Air Quality Improement (EDIAQI), funded under the Horizon Europe programme, are currently underway with the aim to support the formation of European level action and legislative development and implementation vis-à-vis IAQ.

''' Member State Level Legislation'''

In various European Union member states, diverse approaches have been taken to address IAQ through a series of actions and national level legislative measures. This patchwork of efforts aims to improve IAQ standards and protection across different countries. Measures by member states include the establishment of national IAQ plans, drafting legislative acts specifically tailored for indoor environments, and the implementation of mandatory indoor air monitoring activities. Additionally, training and informational programs target technical offices, managers, and staff to enhance their awareness and understanding of IAQ matters. In some countries member states specific legislations and reference ISO standards have been introduced for each pollutant122.

However, a prevailing challenge in this process has been the absence of dedicated IAQ sampling and analysis standards. The confusion stemming from the utilisation of standards designed for industrial environments, such as those by National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and Occupational Safety and Health Administration, which have milligram per cubic meter (mg/m³) sensitivities that differ significantly from indoor microgram per cubic meter (µg/m³) concentrations123. The adoption of the ISO 16000 standard represents a notable improvement in this regard, enhancing the study and control activities related to IAQ and facilitating a more coherent and comprehensive approach to IAQ management124.

'''European Union Indoor Air Quality Legislative Framework'''

Within the European Union's legislative framework, there are key directives that touch upon maintaining certain standards for IAQ. However, these references are rather vague and not specifically focused on IAQ in an explicit manner.

The 1989 Council Directive concerning the minimum safety and health requirements for the workplace mandated sufficient fresh air to accommodate the working conditions and physical demands placed on workers. It emphasised the need to maintain working ventilation systems, including forced ventilation, and addressed issues related to air-conditioning or mechanical ventilation installations to ensure workers' comfort and health. Similarly, Regulation EU No 305/2011 outlines conditions for the marketing of construction products, including aspects related to hygiene, health, and the environment. While this regulation touches on the release of toxic gases, emissions of dangerous substances, and particles into indoor and outdoor air, it does not explicitly delve into comprehensive standards for IAQ125.

Both directives acknowledge the importance of IAQ in their broader contexts, such as worker health and safety and environmental impact, yet they lack specific, detailed guidelines exclusively dedicated to IAQ. As such, while these directives set a foundation for addressing related concerns, they do not offer comprehensive and focused guidance for maintaining optimal IAQ standards.

=== ''' References ''' ===

121 Gaetano Settimo et al, “Indoor Air Quality: A Focus on the European Legislation and State-of-the-Art Research in Italy,” MDPI, 1 March 2020. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/11/4/370#B6-atmosphere-11-00370

122 Gaetano Settimo et al, “Indoor Air Quality: A Focus on the European Legislation and State-of-the-Art Research in Italy,” MDPI, 1 March 2020. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/11/4/370#B6-atmosphere-11-00370

123 Gaetano Settimo et al, “Indoor Air Quality: A Focus on the European Legislation and State-of-the-Art Research in Italy,” MDPI, 1 March 2020. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/11/4/370#B6-atmosphere-11-00370

124 Gaetano Settimo et al, “Indoor Air Quality: A Focus on the European Legislation and State-of-the-Art Research in Italy,” MDPI, 1 March 2020. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/11/4/370#B6-atmosphere-11-00370

125 Tyler a Jacobson et al, “Direct Human Health Risks of Increased Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide,” Nature, 08 July 2019. Available online: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-019-0323-1

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

J. Indoor Air Quality and the Sustainable Development Goals

2023-09-19T10:47:35Z

USEV: Created page with "The '''Sustainable Development Goals''' are a set of 17 interconnected objectives established by the United Nations in 2015 to address a wide range of global challenges and ensure a more sustainable and equitable future for all. These goals encompass diverse areas such as poverty, hunger, health, education, gender equality, clean water, affordable and clean energy, decent work, and climate action, among others. These goals aim to tackle both social and environmental issu..."

The '''Sustainable Development Goals''' are a set of 17 interconnected objectives established by the United Nations in 2015 to address a wide range of global challenges and ensure a more sustainable and equitable future for all. These goals encompass diverse areas such as poverty, hunger, health, education, gender equality, clean water, affordable and clean energy, decent work, and climate action, among others. These goals aim to tackle both social and environmental issues, with a focus on eradicating poverty and inequality while safeguarding the planet's ecosystems. They provide a universal framework for governments, organisations, and individuals to collaborate and take concerted actions to create positive and lasting impacts on people's lives and the planet we share.

IAQ is intricately linked to the achievement of several Sustainable Development Goals, reflecting its profound impact on global health and environmental sustainability. The World Health Organisation plays a significant role by aligning its efforts with these international commitments. As the custodian agency for reporting on SDG indicator 7.1.2, the World Health Organisation maintains the global household energy database to monitor the transition to cleaner fuels and stove combinations in households, addressing the urgent need to increase global clean fuels and technologies usage117.

IAQ interventions are also paramount for Goal Area 3 which focuses on promoting healthier living environments and addressing targets related to preventable deaths in new-borns and children, reducing non-communicable disease mortality, and minimising deaths and illnesses caused by hazardous chemicals and pollution. The World Health Organisation also support assessments of disease burden caused by household air pollution stemming from polluting fuels and technologies, highlighting the direct link between IAQ and SDG 3 – Good Health and Well-Being118.

Achieving targets set out in Goal Area 11 – Sustainable Cities and Communities – also requires IAQ interventions in order to support the development of inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable urban environments. Several key targets, including ensuring access to safe housing and basic services, providing sustainable transport systems, and addressing air quality concerns, underscore the significance of IAQ improvements within the urban context119.

Moreover, Goal Area 3 – Climate Action – holds a critical perspective on the role of IAQ in mitigating the impacts of climate change. This is underscored by the focus of targets 13.2 and 13.3, which emphasise the integration of climate change measures into policies and the enhancement of awareness. Given that indoor air pollution stands as a significant contributor to ambient air pollution, there is a critical imperative to intertwine climate action with IAQ initiatives120.

The international normative framework for addressing air quality, both in a broader sense and with specific regard to IAQ, is anchored in the Sustainable Development Goals and the guidelines set forth by the World Health Organization, along with other pertinent technical documents. This framework not only guides European legislation but also shapes the global understanding of the importance of air quality management.

=== ''' References ''' ===

117 The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

118 The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

119 The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

120 The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants. ; The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021

2023-09-19T10:39:58Z

USEV: Blanked the page

8. WHO Indoor Air Quality Guidelines, 2010

2023-09-19T10:39:22Z

USEV: Blanked the page

7. International Normative Framework

2023-09-19T10:37:22Z

USEV: Blanked the page

6. Interplay Between Outdoor and Indoor Air Quality: The Dynamics of Sources, Ventilation, and Interactions

2023-09-19T10:36:48Z

USEV: Blanked the page

5. Biomass Combustion and Indoor Air Quality

2023-09-19T10:36:25Z

USEV: Blanked the page

4. Indoor Air Quality: Pollutants, Sources, and Influencing Factors

2023-09-19T10:36:00Z

USEV: Blanked the page

3. Indoor Air Quality Relationship to Human Health

2023-09-19T10:35:19Z

USEV: Blanked the page

2. Understanding Indoor Air: Challenges and Differences from Outdoor Air

2023-09-19T10:34:42Z

USEV: Blanked the page

1. The Importance of Clean Air and Today's Air Quality Concerns

2023-09-19T10:34:22Z

USEV: Blanked the page

I. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021

2023-09-19T10:30:25Z

USEV: Created page with "The 2021 WHO air quality guidelines encompass a comprehensive framework applicable to both outdoor and indoor environments, covering various settings where people spend their time107. While these guidelines extend to numerous contexts, they do not address occupational settings due to unique exposure characteristics and risk reduction policies, along with potential differences in population susceptibility within the adult workforce108..."

The 2021 WHO air quality guidelines encompass a comprehensive framework applicable to both outdoor and indoor environments, covering various settings where people spend their time107. While these guidelines extend to numerous contexts, they do not address occupational settings due to unique exposure characteristics and risk reduction policies, along with potential differences in population susceptibility within the adult workforce108.

The primary objective of these updated global guidelines is to provide evidence-based quantitative recommendations for air quality management, offering long- or short-term concentration values for key air pollutants. Exceeding the air quality guideline levels is linked to significant public health risks. Although not legally binding standards, these guidelines equip World Health Organisation member states with an evidence-driven tool to shape legislation and policies, with the ultimate aim of reducing air pollutant levels and alleviating the substantial global health burden from air pollution exposure109.

''' Table 2: Recommended AQG levels and interim targets''' (Extracted from WHO IAQ Guidelines 2010)
{| class="wikitable"
| rowspan="2" |'''Pollutant'''
| rowspan="2" |'''Averaging time'''
| colspan="4" |'''Interim target'''
| rowspan="2" |'''AQG level'''
|-
|'''1'''
|'''2'''
|'''3'''
|'''4'''
|-
| rowspan="2" |PM2.5, µg/m3

|Annual
|35
|25
|15
|10
|5
|-
|24-hour[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftn1|[1]]]
|75
|50
|37.5
|25
|15
|-
| rowspan="2" |PM10, µg/m3
|Annual
|70
|50
|30
|20
|15
|-
|24-hour[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftn2|[2]]]
|150
|100
|75
|50
|45
|-
| rowspan="2" |O3, µg/m3
|Peak season[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftn3|[3]]]
|100
|70
|–
|–
|60
|-
|8-hour[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftn4|[4]]]
|160
|120
|–
|–
|100
|-
| rowspan="2" |NO2, µg/m3
|Annual
|40
|30
|20
|–
|10
|-
|24-hour[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftn5|[5]]]
|120
|50
|–
|–
|25
|-
|SO2, µg/m3
|24-hour[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftn6|[6]]]
|125
|50
|–
|–
|40
|-
|CO, mg/m3
|24-hour[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftn7|[7]]]
|7
|–
|–
|–
|4
|}
----[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftnref1|[1]]] 99th percentile (i.e. 3–4 exceedance days per year).

[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftnref2|[2]]] 99th percentile (i.e. 3–4 exceedance days per year).

[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftnref3|[3]]] Average of daily maximum 8-hour mean O3 concentration in the six consecutive months with the highest six-month running-average O3 concentration.

[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftnref4|[4]]] 99th percentile (i.e. 3–4 exceedance days per year).

[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftnref5|[5]]] 99th percentile (i.e. 3–4 exceedance days per year).

[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftnref6|[6]]] 99th percentile (i.e. 3–4 exceedance days per year).

[[9. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide – 2021#%20ftnref7|[7]]] 99th percentile (i.e. 3–4 exceedance days per year).

RL14: Table 0.2. Air quality guidelines for nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide (short averaging times) that were not re-evaluated and remain valid (WHO, 2021)
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Pollutant'''
|'''Averaging time'''
|'''Air quality guidelines that remain valid'''
|-
|NO2, µg/m3 1-hour 200
|1-hour
|200
|-
|SO2, µg/m3 10-minute 500
|10-minute
|500
|-
| rowspan="3" |CO, mg/m3

|8-hour
|10
|-
|1-hour
|35
|-
|15-minute
|100
|}

=== ''' References ''' ===

107 The World Health Organisation, “WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines,” the World Health Organisation, 2021. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/345334/9789240034433-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

108 The World Health Organisation, “WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines,” the World Health Organisation, 2021. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/345334/9789240034433-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

109 The World Health Organisation, “WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines,” the World Health Organisation, 2021. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/345334/9789240034433-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

H. WHO Indoor Air Quality Guidelines, 2010

2023-09-19T10:27:32Z

USEV:

The World Health Organisation IAQ guidelines aim to safeguard human health by providing health-based recommendations for appropriate fuels, technologies, and strategies within indoor environments, along with international exposure limits. Stressing the paramount importance of human health and potential indoor contaminants, the World Health Organisation has emphasised the significance of IAQ determinants in its technical documents and position papers101.

The World Health Organisation IAQ guidelines offer a comprehensive framework to protect public health from health risks posed by common indoor air pollutants. These guidelines result from rigorous evaluations of scientific evidence by a multidisciplinary group of experts. They encompass pollutants such as benzene, nitrogen dioxide, PAHs, naphthalene, carbon monoxide, radon, trichloroethylene, and tetrachloroethylene102. For carcinogenic pollutants like benzene, unitary risk values are defined for the general population, reflecting their presence in the air103.

The guidelines are targeted at public health professionals, building designers, and authorities overseeing indoor materials and products, providing a consolidated reference to mitigate environmental exposure risks104. Supported by robust evidence reviews, the guidelines evaluate indoor sources, concentrations, outdoor relationships, and health effects of selected pollutants105.

''' Table1: WHO IAQ Guidelines Summary Table''' 106 .
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Pollutant'''
|'''Critical outcomes(s) for guidelines definition'''
|'''Guidelines'''
|'''Comments'''
|-
|Benzene
|• Acute myeloid leukaemia (sufficient evidence on causality)

• Genotoxicity

|• No safe level of exposure can be recommended

• Unit risk of leukaemia per 1 μg/m3 air concentration is 6 × 10–6

• The concentrations of airborne benzene associated with an excess lifetime risk of 1/10 000, 1/100 000 and 1/1 000 000 are 17, 1.7 and 0.17 μg/m3 , respectively

|
|-
|Carbon monoxide
|Acute exposure-related reduction of exercise tolerance and increase in symptoms of ischaemic heart disease (e.g. ST-segment changes)
|• 15 minutes – 100 mg/m3

• 1 hour – 35 mg/m3

• 8 hours – 10 mg/m3

• 24 hours – 7 mg/m3

|
|-
|Formaldehyde
|Sensory irritation
|0.1 mg/m3 – 30-minute average
|The guideline (valid for any 30-minute period) will also prevent effects on lung function as well as nasopharyngeal cancer and myeloid leukaemia
|-
|Naphthalene
|Respiratory tract lesions leading to inflammation and malignancy in animal studies
|0.01 mg/m3 – annual average

|The long-term guideline is also assumed to prevent potential malignant effects in the airways
|-
|Nitrogen dioxide
|Respiratory symptoms, bronchoconstriction, increased bronchial reactivity, airway inflammation and decreases in immune defence, leading to increased susceptibility to respiratory infection
|• 200 μg/m3 – 1 hour average

• 40 μg/m3 – annual average

|No evidence for exposure threshold from epidemiological studies

|-
|Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
|Lung cancer

|No threshold can be determined and all indoor exposures are considered relevant to health

• Unit risk for lung cancer for PAH mixtures is estimated to be 8.7 × 10–5 per ng/m3 of B[a]P

• The corresponding concentrations for lifetime exposure to B[a]P producing excess lifetime cancer risks of 1/10 000, 1/100 000 and 1/1 000 000 are approximately 1.2, 0.12 and 0.012 ng/m3 , respectively

|B[a]P is taken as a marker of the PAH mixture

|-
|Radon
|Lung cancer

Suggestive evidence of an association with other cancers, in particular leukaemia and cancers of the extrathoracic airways
|• The excess lifetime risk of death from radon-induced lung cancer (by the age of 75 years) is estimated to be 0.6 × 10–5 per Bq/m3 for lifelong non-smokers and 15 × 10–5 per Bq/m3 for current smokers (15–24 cigarettes per day); among ex-smokers, the risk is intermediate, depending on time since smoking cessation

• The radon concentrations associated with an excess lifetime risk of 1/100 and 1/1000 are 67 and 6.7 Bq/m3 for current smokers and 1670 and 167 Bq/m3 for lifelong non-smokers, respectively

|WHO guidelines provide a comprehensive approach to the management of health risk related to radon

|-
|Trichloroethylene
|Carcinogenicity (liver, kidney, bile duct and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma), with the assumption of genotoxicity
|• Unit risk estimate of 4.3 × 10–7 per μg/m3

• The concentrations of airborne trichloroethylene associated with an excess lifetime cancer risk of 1:10 000, 1:100 000 and 1:1 000 000 are 230, 23 and 2.3 μg/m3 , respectively

|
|-
|Tetrachloroethylene
|Effects in the kidney indicative of early renal disease and impaired performance
|0.25 mg/m3 – annual average

|Carcinogenicity is not used as an endpoint as there are no indications that tetrachloroethylene is genotoxic and there is uncertainty about the epidemiological evidence and the relevance to humans of the animal carcinogenicity data
|}
=== '''References ''' ===

(101) Gaetano Settimo et al, “Indoor Air Quality: A Focus on the European Legislation and State-of-the-Art Research in Italy,” MDPI, 1 March 2020. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/11/4/370#B6-atmosphere-11-00370

(102) Gaetano Settimo et al, “Indoor Air Quality: A Focus on the European Legislation and State-of-the-Art Research in Italy,” MDPI, 1 March 2020. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/11/4/370#B6-atmosphere-11-00370

(103) Gaetano Settimo et al, “Indoor Air Quality: A Focus on the European Legislation and State-of-the-Art Research in Italy,” MDPI, 1 March 2020. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/11/4/370#B6-atmosphere-11-00370

(104) The World Health Organisation, “WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality,” the WHO regional office for Europe, 2010. Available online: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789289002134

(105) The World Health Organisation, “WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality,” the WHO regional office for Europe, 2010. Available online: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789289002134

(106) The World Health Organisation, “WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality,” the WHO regional office for Europe, 2010. Available online: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789289002134

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

H. WHO Indoor Air Quality Guidelines, 2010

2023-09-19T10:26:27Z

USEV: Created page with "The World Health Organisation IAQ guidelines aim to safeguard human health by providing health-based recommendations for appropriate fuels, technologies, and strategies within indoor environments, along with international exposure limits. Stressing the paramount importance of human health and potential indoor contaminants, the World Health Organisation has emphasised the significance of IAQ determinants in its technical documents and position papers101</small..."

The World Health Organisation IAQ guidelines aim to safeguard human health by providing health-based recommendations for appropriate fuels, technologies, and strategies within indoor environments, along with international exposure limits. Stressing the paramount importance of human health and potential indoor contaminants, the World Health Organisation has emphasised the significance of IAQ determinants in its technical documents and position papers101.

The World Health Organisation IAQ guidelines offer a comprehensive framework to protect public health from health risks posed by common indoor air pollutants. These guidelines result from rigorous evaluations of scientific evidence by a multidisciplinary group of experts. They encompass pollutants such as benzene, nitrogen dioxide, PAHs, naphthalene, carbon monoxide, radon, trichloroethylene, and tetrachloroethylene102. For carcinogenic pollutants like benzene, unitary risk values are defined for the general population, reflecting their presence in the air103.

The guidelines are targeted at public health professionals, building designers, and authorities overseeing indoor materials and products, providing a consolidated reference to mitigate environmental exposure risks104. Supported by robust evidence reviews, the guidelines evaluate indoor sources, concentrations, outdoor relationships, and health effects of selected pollutants105.

''' Table1: WHO IAQ Guidelines Summary Table''' (Extracted from WHO IAQ Guidelines 2010)106 .
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Pollutant'''
|'''Critical outcomes(s) for guidelines definition'''
|'''Guidelines'''
|'''Comments'''
|-
|Benzene
|• Acute myeloid leukaemia (sufficient evidence on causality)

• Genotoxicity

|• No safe level of exposure can be recommended

• Unit risk of leukaemia per 1 μg/m3 air concentration is 6 × 10–6

• The concentrations of airborne benzene associated with an excess lifetime risk of 1/10 000, 1/100 000 and 1/1 000 000 are 17, 1.7 and 0.17 μg/m3 , respectively

|
|-
|Carbon monoxide
|Acute exposure-related reduction of exercise tolerance and increase in symptoms of ischaemic heart disease (e.g. ST-segment changes)
|• 15 minutes – 100 mg/m3

• 1 hour – 35 mg/m3

• 8 hours – 10 mg/m3

• 24 hours – 7 mg/m3

|
|-
|Formaldehyde
|Sensory irritation
|0.1 mg/m3 – 30-minute average
|The guideline (valid for any 30-minute period) will also prevent effects on lung function as well as nasopharyngeal cancer and myeloid leukaemia
|-
|Naphthalene
|Respiratory tract lesions leading to inflammation and malignancy in animal studies
|0.01 mg/m3 – annual average

|The long-term guideline is also assumed to prevent potential malignant effects in the airways
|-
|Nitrogen dioxide
|Respiratory symptoms, bronchoconstriction, increased bronchial reactivity, airway inflammation and decreases in immune defence, leading to increased susceptibility to respiratory infection
|• 200 μg/m3 – 1 hour average

• 40 μg/m3 – annual average

|No evidence for exposure threshold from epidemiological studies

|-
|Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
|Lung cancer

|No threshold can be determined and all indoor exposures are considered relevant to health

• Unit risk for lung cancer for PAH mixtures is estimated to be 8.7 × 10–5 per ng/m3 of B[a]P

• The corresponding concentrations for lifetime exposure to B[a]P producing excess lifetime cancer risks of 1/10 000, 1/100 000 and 1/1 000 000 are approximately 1.2, 0.12 and 0.012 ng/m3 , respectively

|B[a]P is taken as a marker of the PAH mixture

|-
|Radon
|Lung cancer

Suggestive evidence of an association with other cancers, in particular leukaemia and cancers of the extrathoracic airways
|• The excess lifetime risk of death from radon-induced lung cancer (by the age of 75 years) is estimated to be 0.6 × 10–5 per Bq/m3 for lifelong non-smokers and 15 × 10–5 per Bq/m3 for current smokers (15–24 cigarettes per day); among ex-smokers, the risk is intermediate, depending on time since smoking cessation

• The radon concentrations associated with an excess lifetime risk of 1/100 and 1/1000 are 67 and 6.7 Bq/m3 for current smokers and 1670 and 167 Bq/m3 for lifelong non-smokers, respectively

|WHO guidelines provide a comprehensive approach to the management of health risk related to radon

|-
|Trichloroethylene
|Carcinogenicity (liver, kidney, bile duct and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma), with the assumption of genotoxicity
|• Unit risk estimate of 4.3 × 10–7 per μg/m3

• The concentrations of airborne trichloroethylene associated with an excess lifetime cancer risk of 1:10 000, 1:100 000 and 1:1 000 000 are 230, 23 and 2.3 μg/m3 , respectively

|
|-
|Tetrachloroethylene
|Effects in the kidney indicative of early renal disease and impaired performance
|0.25 mg/m3 – annual average

|Carcinogenicity is not used as an endpoint as there are no indications that tetrachloroethylene is genotoxic and there is uncertainty about the epidemiological evidence and the relevance to humans of the animal carcinogenicity data
|}
=== '''References ''' ===

(101) Gaetano Settimo et al, “Indoor Air Quality: A Focus on the European Legislation and State-of-the-Art Research in Italy,” MDPI, 1 March 2020. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/11/4/370#B6-atmosphere-11-00370

(102) Gaetano Settimo et al, “Indoor Air Quality: A Focus on the European Legislation and State-of-the-Art Research in Italy,” MDPI, 1 March 2020. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/11/4/370#B6-atmosphere-11-00370

(103) Gaetano Settimo et al, “Indoor Air Quality: A Focus on the European Legislation and State-of-the-Art Research in Italy,” MDPI, 1 March 2020. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/11/4/370#B6-atmosphere-11-00370

(104) The World Health Organisation, “WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality,” the WHO regional office for Europe, 2010. Available online: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789289002134

(105) The World Health Organisation, “WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality,” the WHO regional office for Europe, 2010. Available online: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789289002134

(106) The World Health Organisation, “WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality,” the WHO regional office for Europe, 2010. Available online: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789289002134

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

G. International Normative Framework

2023-09-19T10:23:38Z

USEV: Created page with "Air, vital for human existence, is acknowledged as a fundamental right. In this vein, the World Health Organisation Regional Office in Europe released its inaugural Air Quality Guidelines for Europe, assessing health risks posed by 28 chemical air pollutants(98). The second edition, published in 2000, expanded on these recommendations and introduced guideline values for additional substances, emphasising the need to mitigate health implications..."

Air, vital for human existence, is acknowledged as a fundamental right. In this vein, the World Health Organisation Regional Office in Europe released its inaugural Air Quality Guidelines for Europe, assessing health risks posed by 28 chemical air pollutants(98). The second edition, published in 2000, expanded on these recommendations and introduced guideline values for additional substances, emphasising the need to mitigate health implications tied to air pollution. Since then, WHO has periodically issued updates, with the 2006 publication offering health-based guideline levels for major pollutants like particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide, contributing to global pollution abatement efforts(99).

In the subsequent years, mounting evidence on air pollution's adverse health impacts prompted renewed focus. Acknowledging the changing landscape, the World Health Organisations efforts were reinforced by the Sixty-eighth World Health Assembly's resolution WHA68.8 in 2015, advocating for intensified measures to safeguard populations from air pollution's health risks(100). The advent of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals further amplified the impetus to address air pollution exposure and its health burdens, underlining its significance in global health agendas.

Concurrently, recognising the substantial health risks linked to household fuel combustion for cooking and heating, the World Health Organisation introduced specific guidelines to address IAQ in 2010. The Guidelines for indoor air quality: household fuel combustion provided evidence-based norms for clean household energy sources, such as solar, electricity, biogas, and natural gas, while emphasising the importance of achieving emission rate targets to safeguard health and the environment.

=== ''' References ''' ===

(98) The World Health Organisation, “The Air Quality Guidelines for Europe,” the World Health Organisation, 1987. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/107364

(99) The World Health Organisation, “WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines,” the World Health Organisation, 2021. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/345334/9789240034433-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

(100) The World Health Organisation, “WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines,” the World Health Organisation, 2021. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/345334/9789240034433-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

F. Interplay Between Outdoor and Indoor Air Quality: The Dynamics of Sources, Ventilation, and Interactions

2023-09-19T10:20:43Z

USEV: Created page with "Despite the notion that opening a window can freshen the composition of indoor air, it is essential to recognise that outdoor air may contain a significant load of pollutants(88). Certain segments of the population, such as children, the elderly, pregnant women, and those with pre-existing health conditions, are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of air pollution on health(89). A notable concern is that individuals residing in low-income households are more l..."

Despite the notion that opening a window can freshen the composition of indoor air, it is essential to recognise that outdoor air may contain a significant load of pollutants(88). Certain segments of the population, such as children, the elderly, pregnant women, and those with pre-existing health conditions, are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of air pollution on health(89). A notable concern is that individuals residing in low-income households are more likely to live near busy roads or industrial areas, leading to heightened exposure to air pollution(90).

The quality of indoor air is profoundly influenced by both indoor and outdoor sources of pollution(91). Key assumptions for synergy analysis include the understanding that outdoor air can infiltrate indoor environments and that indoor air pollution resulting from incomplete fuel combustion poses a direct health risk(92). Moreover, outdoor air quality can impact IAQ(93).

Ventilation and insulation play crucial roles in determining the extent to which outdoor air pollutants affect indoor environments. Inadequate ventilation, where insufficient outdoor air enters indoor spaces, can lead to the accumulation of pollutants at levels that pose health and comfort challenges(94). Various mechanisms, including infiltration, natural ventilation, and mechanical ventilation, facilitate the exchange of outdoor and indoor air. These mechanisms can either bring outdoor pollutants indoors or effectively expel indoor pollutants, affecting IAQ. Interestingly, household air pollution, is a significant contributor to ambient air pollution, further underlines the interplay between indoor and outdoor air quality(95).

Reducing outdoor air pollution directly translates to a reduction in indoor pollution(96). As the performance of fireplaces, stoves, or boilers improves, the indoor-outdoor ratios decrease, indicating a reduction in the infiltration of outdoor pollutants. While existing literature predominantly focuses on various sources of pollution from biomass combustion, it lacks comparisons between different technologies. Nonetheless, the synergies between the objectives of curbing ambient air pollution and reducing indoor air pollution from residential biomass combustion are evident, highlighting the interconnectedness of indoor and outdoor air quality challenges(97).

=== ''' References ''' ===

(88) The European Environment Agency, “Air Quality in Europe 2019 Report,” Publications Office of the European Union, 2019. Available online: https://www.miteco.gob.es/content/dam/miteco/es/calidad-y-evaluacion-ambiental/temas/atmosfera-y-calidad-del-aire/air-quality-in-europe_2019_tcm30-187944.pdf

(89) The European Environment Agency, “Air Quality in Europe 2019 Report,” Publications Office of the European Union, 2019. Available online: https://www.miteco.gob.es/content/dam/miteco/es/calidad-y-evaluacion-ambiental/temas/atmosfera-y-calidad-del-aire/air-quality-in-europe_2019_tcm30-187944.pdf

(90) The European Environment Agency, “Air Quality in Europe 2019 Report,” Publications Office of the European Union, 2019. Available online: https://www.miteco.gob.es/content/dam/miteco/es/calidad-y-evaluacion-ambiental/temas/atmosfera-y-calidad-del-aire/air-quality-in-europe_2019_tcm30-187944.pdf

(91) The European Court of Auditors, “Special Report no 23/2018: Air Pollution: Our health still insufficiently protected,” 10 September 2018. Available online: https://www.eca.europa.eu/en/publications?did=46723

(92) Study to support the impact assessment for a revision of the EU Ambient Air Quality Directives, the European Commission, October 2022. Available online: https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/a05c2e91-54db-11ed-92ed-01aa75ed71a1/language-en

(93) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm ;The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(94) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(95) The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

(96) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(97) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

E. Biomass Combustion and Indoor Air Quality

2023-09-19T10:16:52Z

USEV: Created page with "Biomass combustion presents one of the most significant challenges for IAQ particularly concerning residential heating, as revealed by recent data(83). In 2020, nearly half of total anthropogenic PM2.5 emissions in the European Union originated from biomass combustion for residential heating, with 83% of domestic PM2.5 emissions attributed to biomass use. This poses substantial challenges for ambient air quality directives and the zero pollution action plan. While projec..."

Biomass combustion presents one of the most significant challenges for IAQ particularly concerning residential heating, as revealed by recent data(83). In 2020, nearly half of total anthropogenic PM2.5 emissions in the European Union originated from biomass combustion for residential heating, with 83% of domestic PM2.5 emissions attributed to biomass use. This poses substantial challenges for ambient air quality directives and the zero pollution action plan. While projections indicate a decrease in residential biomass use, with a 19% reduction by 2030 and a further 22% decline by 2050, the residential sector will still partially depend on biomass for energy needs(84).

Key technologies for biomass combustion encompass residential boilers, stoves, and fireplaces, which are major sources of both indoor and outdoor particulate matter (PM)(85). These emissions are influenced by factors such as fuel properties, technology, and user behaviour. Although the decline in residential biomass use has led to reduced fine particle emissions, IAQ remains a concern due to the persistent use of these technologies. Vulnerable groups such as children, the elderly, and those with pre-existing health conditions are particularly susceptible to the health effects of indoor and outdoor air pollution, especially in regions where energy poverty drives the combustion of low-quality solid fuels(86). Such practices expose low-income populations to PM and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) indoors and outdoors, compounding health risks for already disadvantaged individuals(87).

=== ''' References ''' ===

(83) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(84) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(85) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants

(86) The European Environment Agency, “Air Quality in Europe 2019 Report,” Publications Office of the European Union, 2019. Available online: https://www.miteco.gob.es/content/dam/miteco/es/calidad-y-evaluacion-ambiental/temas/atmosfera-y-calidad-del-aire/air-quality-in-europe_2019_tcm30-187944.pdf

(87) The European Environment Agency, “Air Quality in Europe 2019 Report,” Publications Office of the European Union, 2019. Available online: https://www.miteco.gob.es/content/dam/miteco/es/calidad-y-evaluacion-ambiental/temas/atmosfera-y-calidad-del-aire/air-quality-in-europe_2019_tcm30-187944.pdf

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

D. Indoor Air Quality: Pollutants, Sources, and Influencing Factors

2023-09-19T10:12:23Z

USEV: Created page with "Indoor air quality is impacted by several pollutants and contaminants that are influenced by a multitude of factors, stemming from both indoor and outdoor sources(50). These sources include human activities such as smoking, burning solid fuels, cooking, and cleaning, as well as emissions from building materials, equipment, furniture, and biological contaminants like mould, viruses, and allergens. Common contaminants include: • ''' Allergens''', substances that can in..."

Indoor air quality is impacted by several pollutants and contaminants that are influenced by a multitude of factors, stemming from both indoor and outdoor sources(50). These sources include human activities such as smoking, burning solid fuels, cooking, and cleaning, as well as emissions from building materials, equipment, furniture, and biological contaminants like mould, viruses, and allergens. Common contaminants include:

• ''' Allergens''', substances that can induce allergic reactions by triggering the immune system. They can circulate in the air and persist on furniture and carpets for extended periods as well as emanate from pets and pests(51).

• ''' Asbestos''', a fibrous material once used in fireproof building materials, can release microscopic fibres into the air when disturbed, posing a carcinogenic risk(52).

• '''Carbon monoxide''', a toxic and odourless gas, emerges from burning fuels, such as gasoline kerosene, in various appliances and systems, necessitating proper venting to prevent air contamination(53).

• '''Elevated Carbon dioxide (CO2) levels''' emerge from both indoor and outdoor sources and hinge upon ventilation adequacy, with human occupancy being a significant contributor(54). Elevated carbon dioxide levels (<5,000 ppm) may pose direct health risks, including inflammation, cognitive decline, bone and kidney issues, oxidative stress, and endothelial dysfunction. Further research is needed to identify sources, mitigation strategies, and effects of chronic or intermittent exposure to higher indoor CO2 concentrations(55).

• '''Formaldehyde''', with a strong smell, is present in pressed wood furniture, cabinets, and coatings, as well as adhesives and paints, and is recognised as a human carcinogen(56).

• '''Lead''', a naturally occurring metal, has been utilised in diverse products like gasoline, paint, plumbing pipes, and cosmetics, posing health hazards(57).

• '''Legionella bacterium''', found in warm, stagnant water. It spreads through aerosolisation from sources like cooling towers and showers. Commonly affecting immuno-weak individuals, Legionella is hard to detect and resists chlorine treatment due to biofilm formation.

• '''Mould''', a type of fungus, thrives in damp environments indoors and outdoors, presenting potential health risks(58).

• '''Ozone''' is formed through various sources including sunlight, lightning, and pollution, and it can be harmful to human health and particularly in indoor environments due to its reactivity with common indoor substances and skin oils(59).

• '''Pesticides''', substances used to control pests like plants and insects, can carry health risks to humans(60).

• '''Radon''', an odourless and colourless gas originating from soil decay, can infiltrate indoor spaces through gaps and cracks, contributing to lung cancer cases(61).

• '''Smoke (indoor combustion)''', produced from combustion processes like cigarette smoking, cookstoves, and wildfires, contains toxic chemicals such as formaldehyde and lead(62) as well as particulate matter.

• '''Volatile organic compounds''', a wide range of chemicals emitted by various products such as paints, cleaning supplies, and building materials. These compounds can have short- and long-term adverse health effects and are often found at higher concentrations indoors than outdoors(63) .

Within indoor environments, various pollutants can profoundly impact well-being and health(64) and these are influenced by the presence of a variety of sources and factors. These include the presence of chemicals, the existence of radon, the prevalence of fine and ultrafine particles, the occurrence of microbial agents, the presence of pets and pests, humidity levels, ventilation effectiveness, and temperature control.

'''Chemicals''': The presence of specific chemicals in indoor environments can lead to irritations of the eyes, nose, and throat, accompanied by unpleasant odours. While these chemicals might trigger short-term discomfort, their long-term health effects remain insufficiently understood, especially with prolonged exposure(65).

'''Radon''': A naturally occurring gas found in soil and rock, radon can infiltrate buildings and heighten the risk of lung cancer when present in indoor air(66) . Notably, several member states of the European Union have recorded elevated radon concentrations(67).

'''Particulate Matter (PM):''' Coarse (10-2.5 µm), fine (2.5 µm), and ultrafine particles (0.1 µm) in ambient air are known to trigger adverse health effects, impacting the respiratory and cardiovascular systems(68). Although some particles originate from outdoor sources, indoor combustion for heating and cooking, along with chemical reactions between ozone and volatile organic compounds, contribute to particle formation indoors(69). Furthermore, the potential impact on IAQ of man-made nanoparticles (0.1 µm), increasingly employed in consumer products, necessitates further investigation(70).

'''Microbes''': Microorganisms such as fungi and viruses can influence the development of asthma and allergies that affect the airways. Damp indoor environments, especially those with mould, can release allergenic substances from fungi, leading to health complications. Additionally, indoor air can serve as a transmission medium for specific virus infections, some of which are linked to increased asthma and allergy incidence(71).

'''Pets and Pests''': Indoor allergens emanate from pests, house dust mites, cockroaches, and, particularly in urban settings, mice(72). These allergens can trigger respiratory diseases like rhinitis and asthma. The level of exposure varies with the environment(73).

'''Humidity''': Indoor humidity requires an optimal range. Low humidity levels can cause skin dryness, eye irritation, and nasal discomfort, whereas excessive humidity can lead to water damage, mould growth, and dust mite proliferation(74).

'''Ventilation''': Proper ventilation significantly influences IAQ, serving as a crucial measure to mitigate health risks. Inadequate ventilation rates and elevated carbon dioxide concentrations indoors have been associated with significant health consequences(75). Moreover, ventilation rates have been linked to work performance in office environments and the academic performance of school children(76).

'''Temperature''': Appropriate indoor temperatures are vital for human comfort and well-being. Extreme temperatures also pose significant health risks(77). Excessively high temperatures can worsen the effects of inadequate humidity(78).

This compilation is by no means exhaustive, and substantial knowledge gaps persist regarding the primary factors as well as sources contributing to poor IAQ.

Numerous additional complexities intricately influence IAQ, including the age and maintenance of sources(79). For instance, an improperly calibrated stove might emit substantially higher levels of carbon monoxide compared to a well-adjusted one(80). Moreover, specific sources like smoking, cleaning, redecorating, or engaging in hobbies intermittently release pollutants, while unvented or malfunctioning appliances, along with improper product usage, can elevate indoor pollutant levels to potentially hazardous extents(81). Additionally, certain pollutants can be situationally specific, such as chloramines in swimming pools. Beyond these intricacies affecting sources and influencing factors related to IAQ, substantial gaps in knowledge persist regarding sources, factors, contaminants, pollutants, and the broader dynamics shaping IAQ(82).

=== ''' References ''' ===

(50) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(51) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801 ; The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(52) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801 ; The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(53) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801 ; The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(54) Bowen Du et al, "Indoor CO2 concentrations and cognitive function: A critical review," International Journal of Indoor Environment and Health, 19 June 2020. Available online: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ina.12706

(55) Tyler a Jacobson et al, “Direct Human Health Risks of Increased Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide,” Nature, 08 July 2019. Available online: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-019-0323-1

(56) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801 ; The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(57) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(58) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801 ; The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(59) "Outdoor ozone and building related symptoms in the BASE study" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-04-09. Retrieved 2012-03-02.

(60) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(61) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(62) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(63) Lawrence Wang et al, Advanced Air and Noise Pollution Control: Volume 2 (New Jersey, Springer, 2005). Available online: https://books.google.es/books?id=X6iZsE1Xq1EC&pg=PA247&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false

(64) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(65) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0 ; Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801

(66) Sarah Darby et al, “Radon in Homes and Risk of Lung Cancer: collaborative analysis of individual data from 13 European case-control studies,” National Library of Medicine, 27 January 2005. Available online: https://www.bmj.com/content/330/7485/223.long ; Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-3/2-determining-factors.htm ; Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801

(67) The European Environment Agency, “Radon,” 28 June 2022. Available online: https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/environmental-burden-of-cancer/radon#:~:text=The%20Basic%20Safety%20Standards%20Directive,radon%20concentrations%20in%20dwellings%20and

(68) The World Health Organisation, “Health aspects of air pollution with particulate matter, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide. Report on a WHO working group. Copenhagen,” WHO Regional Office for Europe, 2003. Available online: http://www.euro.who.int/document/e79097.pdf)
The World Health Organisation, “Effects of air pollution on children’s health and development: Report on a WHO working group,” The European Centre for Environment and Health Bonn Office, 2005. Available Online: http://www.euro.who.int/document/E86575.pdf

(69) Amir Afshari, “Characterization of indoor sources of fine and ultrafine particles: a study conducted in a full-scale chamber,” National Library of Medicine, April 2005. Available online: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15737157/ ; Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-3/2-determining-factors.htm ; Ching-Wing Lam et al, “A review of carbon nanotube toxicity and assessment of potential occupational and environmental health risks,” National Library of Medicine, 2006. Available online: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16686422/

(70) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0 ; Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801

(71) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-3/2-determining-factors.htm

(72) Gennaro D’Amato et al, “Pollen-related allergy in Europe,” National Library of Medicine, Jun 1998. Available online: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9689338/ ; Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-3/2-determining-factors.htm ; Gunnar D Nielsen et al, “IgE-mediated asthma and rhinitis I: a role of allergen exposure?,” National Library of Medicine, 2002. Available online: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12076303/

(73) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-3/2-determining-factors.htm

(74) Leena M Reinikainen et al, “Significance of humidity and temperature on skin and upper airway symptoms,” Research Gate, January 2004. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6728915_Significance_of_humidity_and_temperature_on_skin_and_upper_airway_symptoms ; Peder Wolkoff, “the Dichotomy of Relative Humidity on Indoor Air Quality,” Environmental International, September 20007. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6331976_The_dichotomy_of_relative_humidity_on_indoor_air_quality

(75) O A Seppänen et al, “Association of ventilation rates and CO2 concentrations with health and other responses in commercial and institutional buildings,” National Library of Medicine: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10649857/

(76) O A Seppänen et al, “Ventilation and performance in office work,” National Library of Medicine, February 2006. Available online: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16420495/
Pawel Wargocki et al, “The Effects of Outdoor Air Supply Rate and Supply Air Filter Condition in Classrooms on the Performance of Schoolwork by Children,” Taylor and Francis, 5 January 2007. Available online: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10789669.2007.10390950

(77) Jonathan Healy, “Excess winter mortality in Europe: A cross country analysis identifying key risk factors,” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, November 2023. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/9041878_Excess_winter_mortality_in_Europe_A_cross_country_analysis_identifying_key_risk_factors ; Tom Kosatsky, “The 2003 European heat waves,” Eurosurveillance, 2005. Available online: https://www.eurosurveillance.org/content/10.2807/esm.10.07.00552-en

(78) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-3/2-determining-factors.htm

(79) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801

(80) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801

(81) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801

(82) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

C. Indoor Air Quality Relationship to Human Health

2023-09-19T10:08:05Z

USEV: Created page with "Air stands as a fundamental life-building element, and the quality of indoor air in settings like homes, schools, public structures, healthcare facilities, and private residences plays a pivotal role in people's well-being and overall health(21). Globally, household air pollution caused a staggering loss of 86 million healthy life years in 2019, with the heaviest burden borne by women and children in low- and middle-income nations(22). An estimated 3.2 million deaths in..."

Air stands as a fundamental life-building element, and the quality of indoor air in settings like homes, schools, public structures, healthcare facilities, and private residences plays a pivotal role in people's well-being and overall health(21). Globally, household air pollution caused a staggering loss of 86 million healthy life years in 2019, with the heaviest burden borne by women and children in low- and middle-income nations(22). An estimated 3.2 million deaths in 2020 were attributed to household air pollution, including over 237,000 deaths of children under five(23). In the European Union, air pollution in its entirety emerges as the foremost environmental health concern, causing an estimated 400,000 premature deaths annually(24). Poor air quality is associated with a range of severe health issues, including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cardiovascular disorders, strokes, and lung cancer, among others(25), while also intensifying morbidity and mortality related to cardiovascular and respiratory conditions(26).

'''Both short-term''' and '''long-term exposure''' to indoor air pollution can give rise to various health complications(27). Short-term effects encompass symptoms such as eye, nose, and throat irritation, along with headaches, dizziness, and fatigue, which are generally transient and treatable(28). However, these symptoms can exacerbate pre-existing conditions like asthma(29). Conversely, certain health consequences may manifest only after prolonged and repeated periods of exposure(30). Sustained exposure to particulate matter and other pollutants in household air pollution can inflame airways and lungs, impair immune responses, and diminish blood's oxygen-carrying capacity(31), potentially leading to respiratory diseases, heart ailments, and cancer(32).

Furthermore, '''specific demographic groups''', including children, women, the elderly, and individuals with pre-existing conditions, as well as socioeconomically disadvantaged households, are especially '''vulnerable''' to indoor air pollution(33). Vulnerability depends on the specific pollutant and a group's susceptibility to it(34). Studies indicate children's heightened susceptibility to pollutants like tobacco smoke, lead, and phosphorous-containing pesticides, which can cause coughing, bronchitis, worsened asthma, and other respiratory illnesses(35). Globally, almost half of all deaths from lower respiratory infections in children under five are attributed to inhaling particulate matter from household pollution (36). Elderly individuals might be particularly vulnerable to air pollution due to reduced chemical elimination capacity with age, though they may also exhibit reduced sensitivity to certain effects like eye or nose irritation. People with cardiovascular issues are more susceptible to particles, while those with respiratory ailments like asthma are more prone to various air pollutants(37).

Indoor air pollution, including particulate matter, allergens, endotoxin, and mould, has been linked to '''compromised health''' and '''performance''' in both children and adults(38). Certain chemicals may induce irritation of the eyes and upper airways, affecting cognitive abilities(39). Direct links have also been established between exposure to nitric oxide and adverse cognitive outcomes, including reduced verbal abilities and executive functioning(40).

Among the 3.2 million global deaths attributed to household air pollution, 21% result from lower '''respiratory''' infections, particularly affecting children(41). Additionally, 19% are related to chronic pulmonary disease and 6% to lung cancer(42). The presence of mould and humidity levels, impacting mould prevalence indoors, correlates with long-term health effects, notably asthma severity(43). Moreover, household pollution exposure during pregnancy has also been linked to altered lung development, subsequently elevating the risk of pneumonia within a child's first year(44). Specific pollutants like radon, asbestos, arsenic, tobacco smoke, and others in indoor air have been associated with cancer, especially lung cancer(45).

Research has also shown that markers of '''cardiovascular''' disease can manifest even at ozone levels lower than WHO guidelines(46). In healthy adults, short-term exposure to both indoor and outdoor ozone has been linked to elevated blood platelets, a clotting risk factor, and increased blood pressure(47). Astonishingly, 32% of the 3.2 million global deaths due to household pollution exposure result from ischemic heart disease, while an additional 23% stem from stroke due to pollutants from solid fuels and kerosene in indoor environments(48). Evidence also points to connections between household air pollution and low birth weight, tuberculosis, cataracts, and cancers of the nasopharynx and larynx(49).

However, the '''complete scope of health effects stemming from indoor air pollution remains largely unknown''', characterised by numerous gaps in knowledge. This issue exhibits a complexity and prevalence that surpasses the current grasp of research.

=== ''' References ''' ===

(21) The World Health Organisation, “WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality,” the WHO regional office for Europe, 2010. Available online: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789289002134

(22) The World Health Organisation, Household Air Pollution, 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

(23) The World Health Organisation, Household Air Pollution, 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

(24) The European Commission, “Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: A Europe that Protects: Clean Air for All,” the European Commission, 17 May 2018. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52018DC0330

(25) The European Commission, “Air”, 2023. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air_en

(26) The World Health Organisation, “WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines,” the World Health Organisation, 2021. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/345334/9789240034433-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

(27) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(28) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(29) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(30) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(31) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(32) Maria del Carmen González-Caballero ET AL, “Pollution, Indoor Air,” Elsevier Reference Collection in Biomedical Sciences, 2023: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128243152006801 ; The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Introduction to Indoor Air Quality,” The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 May 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/introduction-indoor-air-quality#:~:text=Indoor%20Air%20Quality%20(IAQ)%20refers,and%20comfort%20of%20building%20occupants.

(33) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0 ; The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm ; The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

(34) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0

(35) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0

(36) The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

(37) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0

(38) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(39) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-3/2-determining-factors.htm

(40) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(41) The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

(42) The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

(43) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(44) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(45) Sarah Darby et al, “Radon in Homes and Risk of Lung Cancer: collaborative analysis of individual data from 13 European case-control studies,” National Library of Medicine, 27 January 2005. Available online: https://www.bmj.com/content/330/7485/223.long ;
The European Commission, “Air”, 2023. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air_en

(46) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(47) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(48) The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

(49) The World Health Organisation, “Household Air Pollution,” 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

B. Understanding Indoor Air: Challenges and Differences from Outdoor Air

2023-09-19T10:03:56Z

USEV: Created page with "While the prevailing perception is that pollution primarily poses a risk outdoors(10), it is important to recognise that indoor environments can harbour pollution levels that are not only comparable but often exceed those found outdoors(11). Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) can be significantly compromised by elements like smoke, mould and chemicals present in certain paints, furnishings, and cleaning products(12). In contrast to ambient air quality, which pertains to outdoor se..."

While the prevailing perception is that pollution primarily poses a risk outdoors(10), it is important to recognise that indoor environments can harbour pollution levels that are not only comparable but often exceed those found outdoors(11). Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) can be significantly compromised by elements like smoke, mould and chemicals present in certain paints, furnishings, and cleaning products(12). In contrast to ambient air quality, which pertains to outdoor settings, indoor air quality encompasses the air within and surrounding buildings, with an emphasis on the comfort, well-being, and health of occupants. Given that Europeans spend 90% of their time indoors(13) and that indoor spaces can sometimes be more polluted than outdoor areas(14), comprehending the full scope of this issue and devising strategies to enhance air quality is seen as paramount both in Europe and globally.

Since the 1970s, the matter of IAQ has garnered considerable attention, with the World Health Organization addressing it in various documents and forums(15). This problem is acknowledged as a pressing concern spanning low, middle, and high-income countries alike(16). Individuals can encounter air pollutants in a range of indoor settings, encompassing private residences, offices, educational institutions, and public transportation systems(17). The complexity arises from the fact that indoor air often comprises a blend of diverse pollutants, making it intricate to pinpoint the health implications linked to specific exposures(18). Furthermore, the quality of indoor air is influenced by a multitude of factors, including the activities conducted in each space, the quality of building materials and finishes, the furnishings present, and even the level of occupancy, among others(19). Moreover, it's worth noting that indoor environments can also be impacted by outdoor pollutants seeping in(20).

=== ''' References ''' ===
(10) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(11) Abinaya Sekar et al, “Analysis of benzene air quality standards, monitoring methods and concentrations in indoor and outdoor environment,” Heliyon, 29 November 2019. Available online: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31844766/

(12) The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “Indoor Air Quality,” 12 July 2023. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/indoor-air/index.cfm

(13) Maya I Mitova et al, “Human chemical signature: Investigation on the influence of human presence and selected activities on concentrations of airborne constituents,” Environmental Pollution, February 2020. Available online: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749119334268

(14) Abinaya Sekar et al, “Analysis of benzene air quality standards, monitoring methods and concentrations in indoor and outdoor environment,” Heliyon, 29 November 2019. Available online: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31844766/

(15) Gaetano Settimo et al, “Indoor Air Quality: A Focus on the European Legislation and State-of-the-Art Research in Italy,” MDPI, 1 March 2020. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/11/4/370#B6-atmosphere-11-00370

(16) Michael J Suess, “The Indoor Air Quality Programme of the WHO Regional Office for Europe,” the WHO regional office for Europe, 1992, 2, 180–193. Available online: https://www.aivc.org/sites/default/files/airbase_6487.pdf ; Lars Mølhave et al, “The right to healthy indoor air: Status by 2002,” National Library of Medicine, 2003. Available online: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12572915/ ; The World Health Organisation, “WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality,” the WHO regional office for Europe, 2010. Available online: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789289002134

(17) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0

(18) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0

(19) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0 ; Gaetano Settimo et al, “Indoor Air Quality: A Focus on the European Legislation and State-of-the-Art Research in Italy,” MDPI, 1 March 2020. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/11/4/370#B6-atmosphere-11-00370

(20) Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs, “Indoor Air Quality,” the European Commission, 2008. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/en/indoor-air-pollution/l-2/5-pollutant-mixtures.htm#0

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

A. The Importance of Clean Air and Today's Air Quality Concerns

2023-09-19T10:00:03Z

USEV: Created page with "The concern over air quality dates back to ancient times, with even Hippocratic principles of environmental health addressing this issue(1). As far back as 1306, King Edward of England took action by passing legislation that prohibited the burning of sea-coal due to its combustion emissions(2). Clean air stands as a fundamental cornerstone of life, encompassing not only human existence but also the broader biosphere. Unfortunately, contemporary human activities such as i..."

The concern over air quality dates back to ancient times, with even Hippocratic principles of environmental health addressing this issue(1). As far back as 1306, King Edward of England took action by passing legislation that prohibited the burning of sea-coal due to its combustion emissions(2). Clean air stands as a fundamental cornerstone of life, encompassing not only human existence but also the broader biosphere. Unfortunately, contemporary human activities such as industrial processes, energy generation, residential heating, and transportation persist in generating pollutants that significantly degrade air quality. The repercussions of this deterioration are vast, with air pollution inflicting significant harm upon the environment and ecosystems(3).

Beyond the catastrophic environmental damage, the consequences of these activities reverberate profoundly in terms of human health and overall well-being. Outdoor and indoor air pollution collectively contribute to an alarming annual toll of 6.7 million premature deaths(4). In fact, it is now estimated to be on par with other major global risks such as unhealthy diet and tobacco smoking(5). Air pollution is now recognised as the single biggest environmental threat to human life(6). Within the European Union, the consequences for citizens' quality of life remain substantial, especially in urban hubs where persistently inadequate air quality standards pose an ongoing health risk(7). The economic impact is also substantial, as air pollution is projected to cost the European Union an annual total of 330 billion euros(8). This financial burden encompasses the consequences of disease exacerbated by air pollution, as well as the associated loss of productivity and elevated healthcare expenses(9).

=== ''' References ''' ===

(1) Hippocrates, On airs, waters, and places (White Fish: Kessinger Publishing, 2004)

(2) Eloi Laurent, “Air (ine)quality in the European Union,” the National Library of Medicine, 26 March 2022. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8960211/#CR7

(3) The European Commission, “Air”, 2023. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air_en

(4) The World Health Organisation, Household Air Pollution, 28 November 2022. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health

(5) The European Environment Agency, “Air Quality in Europe 2019 Report,” Publications Office of the European Union, 2019. Available online: https://www.miteco.gob.es/content/dam/miteco/es/calidad-y-evaluacion-ambiental/temas/atmosfera-y-calidad-del-aire/air-quality-in-europe_2019_tcm30-187944.pdf ; The United Nations, “Political declaration of the third high-level meeting of the General Assembly on the prevention and control of non-communicable diseases,” The United Nations General Assembly, 10 October 2018. Available online: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/1648984

(6) The World Health Organisation, “WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines,” the World Health Organisation, 2021. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/345334/9789240034433-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

(7) The European Commission, “Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: A Europe that Protects: Clean Air for All,” the European Commission, 17 May 2018. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52018DC0330

(8) The European Commission, “Air”, 2023. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air_en

(9) The World Health Organisation, “WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines,” the World Health Organisation, 2021. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/345334/9789240034433-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

1.2. das

2023-09-19T09:56:05Z

USEV: Blanked the page

1.10. des

2023-09-19T09:55:42Z

USEV: Blanked the page

B. esdds

2023-09-19T09:53:52Z

USEV: Blanked the page

A. des

2023-09-19T09:53:04Z

USEV: Blanked the page

B. esdds

2023-09-19T09:51:34Z

USEV: Created page with " Category: IAQ Policy Landscape"

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

A. des

2023-09-19T09:50:39Z

USEV: Created page with " Category: IAQ Policy Landscape"

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]

1.10. des

2023-09-19T09:48:45Z

USEV: Created page with " Category: IAQ Policy Landscape"

[[Category: IAQ Policy Landscape]]